Purpose – the purpose of this paper is to examine variations within lesson study (LS) practices and their connections with related traditions: teacher research/enquiry approaches, professional development models,
professional learning communities and group problem-solving approaches. Questions are addressed about the relationships between different professional learning approaches in terms of definitions and frameworks.

Design/methodology/approach – Academic databases and website sources were searched in a purposive way to identify 20 practices associated with these traditions for comparative analysis.

Findings – a conceptual framework consisting of eight dimensions was constructed to account for the variations within and between these professional learning traditions: for instance, about the settings in which
the practices take place, the purposes of the practices and the specific procedures involved. By illustrating how specific practices fitted within this framework it is concluded that the variations within the LS tradition
are wide enough to make it difficult to identify a set of necessary and sufficient features of LS to distinguish LS practices from the other non-LS professional learning practices. Reasons are also given for considering
whether a polythetic type of definition of professional learning/development practices might be constructed.

Research limitations/implications – the possibility for a more systematic review of professional learning approaches for the construction of a conceptual framework is discussed.

Practical implications – Ways in which this kind of conceptualisation can be useful in promoting clarity about professional learning practices and in developing these practices are discussed.

Originality/value – the originality of this paper lies in the construction of a conceptual framework to analyse similarities and differences within and between various learning traditions.

This article examines the pattern of placement of students with significant special educational needs at Statement and School Action Plus levels in English secondary schools, comparing sponsored and converter academies, maintained schools and the newly created free schools, studio schools and university technical colleges for 2013 and 2014. The analysis shows a clear pattern of differences: converter academies (which are governed by their own governing body) had significantly lower proportions of students with significant special educational needs overall than maintained (those remaining under local authority management) and sponsored academies (those considered to be weak/failing schools forced to become academies with outside sponsors that oversee the schools). There was a similar pattern of findings for most areas of special educational needs, except visual impairment and autistic spectrum disorder. The pattern of placement of students with Statements in the newly created free schools also showed that some free schools have unusually high proportions of students with special educational needs. These findings are discussed in terms of the increasing stratification of English secondary schools and the potential of small secondary schools to be more inclusive.

Eliciting the views, wishes and feelings of children and young people with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities became the primary element of a new law within England, as part of the Government’s commitment to improving services for vulnerable children and their families, known as the Children and Families Act (2014). This thesis will explore the perspective of professionals within Local Authorities and specialist schools in England and how they elicit the voice of children and young people with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities during assessments for an Education, Health and Care Plan and their Annual Reviews. It also aims to develop group consensus on the characteristics of meaningful participation and provide solutions to perceived barriers in eliciting voice. An online-based questionnaire explored their attitudes, beliefs and opinions on eliciting voice; these were then followed up with six semi-structured interviews to further understand the factors that enable this and the barriers that are presented to both professionals and children and young people. Findings from the questionnaire and interviews show a varied approach to eliciting voice between professionals of different roles. Participants identified a range of enabling factors that support their role to elicit voice, whilst also identifying barriers that hinder the ability for children and young people to meaningfully engage in assessments and reviews. A Delphi study was also undertaken with eight professionals from one Local Authority and a local specialist school, in order to develop consensus on consultation based on the findings from the questionnaires and interviews. Through multiple iterations, the Delphi method developed consensus around the factors that enable professionals to elicit the voice meaningfully and provided solutions to overcome the barriers to participation. A document of good practice was produced from the findings and feedback was gathered on the usefulness and practicality of the document. This thesis concludes that despite a professional rhetoric of eliciting voice, the barriers within the field undermine the ability of professionals to do so consistently. By prioritising a child or young person’s views within an assessment and using creative methods to elicit voice, professionals can overcome barriers to ensure their voice is heard. Implications for future practice and policy is discussed on ensuring a person-centred approach to Education, Health and Care Plans, and Annual Reviews.

Located within social and education policy, the central aim of this research is to explore the concept of school belonging of young people who live under the legal status of a special guardianship order (SGO) in the United Kingdom. Literature highlights that a high proportion of young people with a SGO have experienced early neglect and developmental trauma. There is a dearth of research gathering the views of these young people about their school experiences. The Children and Social Work Act (2017) has placed more emphasis on the role of the designated teacher in schools towards this group of young people.
This study comprised seven cases and a cross-case analysis. Each case included a young person, their guardian/s and their school’s designated teacher, resulting in twenty-one semi-structured interviews. Adult interviews followed a hierarchical structured interview approach and the young person interviews involved personal construct psychology techniques.
Thematic analysis was used to analyse data within each case. In-depth analysis of young peoples’, guardians’ and designated teachers’ experiences of school belonging was undertaken using Bronfenbrenner’s Process-Person-Context-Time framework (PPCT; 1999) as a conceptual aid throughout analysis. This offered the potential for insight into the complexity of the theory of school belonging. The cross-case analysis examined all of the themes generated from the individual cases to identify similarities and variances between them. The overarching themes identified included: Identity, diagnosis, individuality and association, fitting in, connection to others, protection and autonomy, support and intervention, systems as obstacles to support, school processes, school features, and organisational change. The findings emphasise the importance of establishing a broad focus when considering the concept of school belonging, to include the individual’s peer and staff relationships, along with school processes and the interactions between the school, home and the wider community. This study provides original, enlightened and new understanding with implications for education and social care policy and school practice.

England has a school teacher recruitment and retention crisis. Fewer people are turning to teaching as a career and of those that do, nearly half of them leave the profession within a few years in the classroom. Common reasons for this include micromanagement, excessive workload, and low professional morale. School leaders must balance the weight of high-stakes external accountability through standardised assessment and inspection with a positive school climate where teachers deeply believe in their capacity to improve and impact upon pupils’ achievement. It is therefore important that school leaders are able to draw upon theories in action that positively impact on teachers’ perceptions of the school climate and self-efficacy that simultaneously support deep teacher learning and pupil outcomes. Professional capital theory posits that through the systematic development and integration of three kinds of capital – human, social and decisional – learning and achievement can improve everywhere (A. Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012). Lesson Study (LS) is a model of teacher development that has been widely researched for its impact on teacher learning and pupil outcomes, but with little evidence about its association with teachers’ perceptions of school climate and teacher self-efficacy. While a small number of recent studies have considered the impact of LS on school culture and teacher self-efficacy, they have focused primarily on quantitative measures and have been conducted by external researchers, without considering the voice of the teachers in an emerging picture of LS in shaping the school climate or teacher self-efficacy. LS is positioned within the study as an approach aligned with social capital while, crucially, the research is being conducted at a school situated within a system that is not conducive to professional capital in action. This is of importance to school leaders as teachers’ perspectives on school climate and self-efficacy as a result of improvement approaches are fundamental in teacher satisfaction, development, improvement and job performance. Teachers’ perspectives about school improvement are fundamental to its sustainability and long term impact.

The aims of this study were: 1) to positively change school culture/climate through the introduction of Lesson Study as professional learning and development; 2) to improve teacher self-efficacy in teaching mixed-ability classes in mathematics, ultimately phasing out “ability grouping”; and, 3) to interrogate current teaching strategies being used with struggling and advanced learners in primary mathematics with regard to pupil progress. The following research questions were formulated to explore the aims: 1) Will initiating a programme of Lesson Study be associated with a positive impact on the climate of a primary school? 2) Will initiating a programme of Lesson Study be associated with a positive impact on teacher self-efficacy in implementing inclusive practice? 3) What conclusions did the teachers draw about improving the teaching following the Lesson Study cycle? 4) What changes to practice will teachers sustain after engaging in a wave of Lesson Study? 5) What changes in pupil maths attainment will follow a programme of Lesson Study?

This research presents the case study of a primary school in inner London conducting LS for the first time in 2015/16, with a prologue discussing the events leading up to the study itself from 2012, concluding with an epilogue exploring the outcomes over time in 2020/21. Using professional capital theory, I collected data from semi-structured individual interviews, group interviews, pre- and post- LS questionnaires and a review of group research posters and pupil mathematics assessment data. I then critically examined this data to identify qualitative themes in teacher perspectives. Finally, these analyses were combined to consider what associations teachers perceived LS to have. Quantitative analysis showed both high initial ratings from teachers and overall mean score improvements to both climate and self-efficacy scales. These results were expanded upon through interview and teachers identified new potential domains for the analysis of the school climate and teacher self-efficacy. Teachers' responses to questions about their learning and sustained changes to practice were in line with relevant LS literature and pupil outcomes reflected a significant difference when comparing Wave 1 to Wave 2 and a difference between prior low-attaining pupils and prior high attainers. There is also evidence to support a change in teacher practice as it related to “ability grouping” due to the construct of LS itself.

The research undertaken in this project is significant as it supports and furthers the work in the field of LS. It contends that LS is both a vehicle for teacher development and pupil achievement, but adds to the field that LS is a mechanism that can be used to positively influence the climate in a primary school and improve the self-efficacy of teachers in implementing inclusive practices in the context of professional capital theory over time. In addition to this, this study adds content to the body of knowledge about school climate and teacher self-efficacy beyond the realm of LS, which could be used in designing quantitative tools to measure climate and efficacy in other settings. It also provides a longitudinal look at the place of LS and professional capital theory in action at an English primary school over time, with work analysed in both the initial stages and five years on. Future research could be pursued about those elements that allow effective LS to be sustained in English primary schools and the factors that support or dissuade leaders from adopting Lesson Study in system-based cultures less conducive to LS. An analysis of current school climate and self-efficacy scales could be undertaken to further develop the coverage of school climate and teacher self-efficacy measures.

Abstract

Background
Academic procrastination has been defined as the voluntarily delay of an intended course of study-related action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. As many as 70% of university students consider themselves procrastinators, and approximately 50% of university students procrastinate consistently and problematically. Despite this, research concerning the prevalence and prevention of procrastination among post-16 students in the UK is scarce. Temporal motivation theory (TMT) is one way to better understand procrastination because it helps explain why motivation grows exponentially as deadlines approach. TMT can be expressed mathematically as motivation = (expectancy x value) / (impulsiveness x delay).

The current study was carried out in two phases. A mixed-methods approach to data collection and analysis was adopted using both quantitative and qualitative methods. I have summarised each phase below.
Phase 1
Research Questions
1. How does procrastination as experienced by post-16 students compare with procrastination as described by temporal motivation theory?
2. How do post-16 students’ strategies for tackling procrastination compare with procrastination as described by temporal motivation theory?
Methods
Semi-structured interviews were carried out with twenty post-16 students to explore their lived experience of procrastination. Four case studies were employed to help elicit their responses. The students were then asked to outline approaches which might help other young people reduce procrastination behaviours. Template analysis (TA) was used to analyse the participants’ responses. Three original templates were drawn up to analyse participants’ responses in terms of how procrastination was defined, how it was described, and how it might be reduced. The original templates included the constructs making up TMT as a priori themes. These templates were then adapted and additional themes added. The extent to which the original templates were adapted showed the extent to which TMT accounted for the breadth of participants’ responses.

Results
TMT was found to be a useful way to explain how students approach a procrastination task. However, the components of TMT were found to interact in a number of important ways, resulting in different types of procrastination behaviour. Emotions were also shown to motivate cognition, with anxious feelings exaggerating the perceived cost of a procrastination task. Furthermore, students did not consider procrastination tasks in isolation, and aspects of TMT could be used to help determine whether they prioritised procrastination tasks, or alternative tasks. Lastly, TMT appeared to be a useful framework for planning interventions to tackle procrastination. However, TMT may not be a sufficient framework in and of itself.

Phase 2
Research Questions
1. To what extent are the Phase One results generalisable to post-16 students?
2. To what extent do teachers and educational psychologists agree with the views of post-16 students about procrastination and temporal motivation theory?

Methods
Surveys were designed to capture the constructs which emerged during Phase One. Post-16 students (n=343), teachers of post-16 students (n=52), and educational psychologists (n=43) completed these surveys. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVAs) and appropriate post hoc tests were used to analyse the perceived importance of each construct. Relevant contrasts and comparisons are outlined in the text.

Results
Statistical analysis suggested that many of the Phase One results were generalisable. There were important areas where all three cohorts agreed. For example – regarding the role of deadlines in procrastination. However, some significant differences were also observed. These included a difference in opinion about the value of alternative tasks; a greater value placed on smartphones by students; and a more negative evaluation of procrastination tasks by students. Lastly, there were some results which were too subtle to be picked up using the Phase Two survey (in relation to complacency, for example).

Overall discussion and future directions
Different aspects of the TMT equation interact – along with emotion – to produce different patterns of avoidance. For example, low expectancy-beliefs result in negative emotions, especially when accompanied by high evaluations of task cost. Similarly, anxious feelings may lead to an exaggerated perception of the cost of a procrastination task, which may be why starting a procrastination task is especially difficult. This may also be why it is so easy to get distracted beforehand. Moreover, the utility value of a procrastination task is often set in opposition to the high intrinsic value of alternative tasks. These conflicts can result in distress and anxiety.

In terms of practical implications, adopting practical strategies requires self-regulation in and of itself, and the subjective experience of low expectancy beliefs seems to make following practical advice problematic. It is also worth taking seriously the idea that this generation of students are at a particular disadvantage given their exposure to mobile technology. Future interventions might therefore tackle the regulation side of procrastination. In these cases, teachers and other professionals might support students with timetables, SMART targets, and intermittent deadlines. However, all three groups also agreed that decreasing the negative emotions associated with a task might help reduce procrastination. Support for students could therefore be targeted at the emotional aspect of procrastination. Approaches such as mindfulness, CBT and ACT may be helpful. Finally, some future directions are also suggested. For example, a better understanding of how STVs are deployed to rank tasks, and what the emotional cost is for making these judgements. A role for EPs in supporting each group to understand procrastination and the different ways that it can be perceived is also suggested.

The UK coalition government’s Green Paper (DfE, 2011) stated that the administration intended to “remove the bias towards inclusion and propose to strengthen parental choice by improving the range and diversity of schools from which parents can choose” (p.5). There has been an increase in recent years within the UK of pupils with an Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP) attending a state-funded special school (DfE, 2019b), with a pledge in March 2019 for 3,500 additional special schools placements to be made available across the UK (DfE, 2019a). Recent research in Australia has suggested that the complexity of deciding between regular and special schools is compounded by the influence of professionals and accessing reliable information, meaning that parents’ choices do not reflect their actual preferences (Mann, Cuskelly & Moni, 2015). There is however limited research currently around the experiences of choosing special school for parents in the UK.
This research thesis examined the views of parents of pupils in UK special schools: to gain an understanding of the reasons behind parents choosing special school and the extent to which they feel they had an independent, informed choice of school. The research considers how these choices are facilitated in schools and supported by professionals. It also considers parents’ views around high-quality, inclusive education.
The research employed a two-phase, mixed methods explanatory sequential design. Phase 1 employed the use of questionnaires in order to address the above aims (the questionnaire was adapted from that of Bagley et al, 2001). Participants were sampled across three local authorities in the South West of England and administered through special schools and via social media. The inclusion criteria stated that the children of the parents sampled had to have been attending a special school for at least 12 months. Phase 2 of the research employed semi-structured interviews, with a volunteer sample drawn from parents who participated in Phase 1 (purposively sampled to reflect a range of parental views, experiences and demographics). As per the explanatory sequential design, the interview schedule was devised based on an interim analysis from Phase 1 (using the Phase 1 data collected by October 2019).
Sixty-eight percent of participants suggested that they did not feel that they had a real choice between special school provision and other types of provision (e.g. more than one option that was good enough), with 49% indicating that mainstream school was completely inappropriate for their child (the modal response). ‘Real choice’ was explored as a multi-faceted concept for parents (related to the number of school choices, with appropriateness of mainstream school, and quality of facilitation and professional support- supporting parents to be aware of options- also being influential factors. The research also suggests that parents experienced more of a difficult choice when they felt mainstream school was appropriate for their child, suggesting a dilemma.
The majority of parents indicated feeling well-informed and supported by professionals throughout the process. 76% of participants however felt that the system of parental choice of school should be improved. Finally, the parents in this research presented a clear view of inclusion which is contrary to the ‘inclusion as all children under one roof’ philosophy (Warnock, 1978). Accessing a shared academic curriculum was not considered to be effective inclusion for these parents. Instead, this was for their child to feel a sense of belongingness and acceptance in their setting, and to be accessing an appropriate curriculum for their needs. Parents felt that this was best achieved in separate, specialist provision.
This small-scale research provides a detailed insight into the views and experiences of parents of children with special educational needs (SEN) in the South West of England, who have made a choice between mainstream and special school, and an examination of the factors underlying both positive and negative experiences. The implications for national policy and for the practice of EPs are considered, as well as recommendations for future research.

This study sought to understand leadership for inclusive education from a principal’s perspective, in acknowledgement of the crucial part they play as leaders of schools. It adopted the Ecology of Inclusive Education (Anderson et al. 2014), a conceptual framework that situates inclusive education within the complex context of schools, and the environments in which they operate. This afforded a recognition of the influential nature of context in the construction of principals’ knowledges, attitudes and practices as leaders for inclusive education. Seven case studies were conducted across primary schools in an educational region of Queensland, Australia. Each case utilised thematic analysis to analyse two in-depth semi-structured interviews and key school documentation. The results yielded some interesting findings. Each of the seven principals perceived inclusive education as a continuum that permits education to occur in a way determined by the schools as best meeting the needs of the students, whether this be in a mainstream classroom, a special education classroom, a special school setting, or anywhere in between. Principals expressed a predominantly negative attitude towards the notion of inclusion and identified barriers over which they had no control as justification for this attitude. The knowledges and attitudes described by principals significantly influenced the selection and enactment of leadership practices for inclusive education. While a small number of practices promoted inclusive education, the majority were either used in both inclusive and exclusive ways or were solely exclusive. Yet practices applied in exclusive ways were consistently described by principals as being ‘inclusive’.
The findings of this study highlight some key points. Principals knowledges of and attitudes towards inclusive education reflect the operation of the education system in which they work. Aspects of influence from the social, political and historical contexts were also evident in the principals’ discourse, across both the interviews and documentation. Two shifts need to occur for inclusive education to have a chance of success. First, the system needs to reflect the social justice principles of inclusive education in everything it does. Second, principals need to be afforded the opportunity for authentic introspection, where current ways of thinking and knowing are challenged. It is only when systems operate in a consistently inclusive way, and principals perceive inclusive education positively, that students, regardless of their starting point, will benefit from schooling - socially, emotionally and academically - in an equitable way.

According to Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) (UNICEF, 1989), all children have a right to speak out and be heard on matters affecting their education. Student voice has become a widely used term to acknowledge that young people bring unique perspectives and that those charged with making decisions about children’s education bear the duty to give due weight to the views expressed by their students (Lundy, 2007). The acceptance that students should play a more significant role in their educational experiences and journey has gained momentum over the past 30 years. Student voice activities continue to be endorsed by policymakers, and UK national education policy strongly encourages practices which seek to increase levels of student participation (DfE, 2014a).

This aim of this study was to develop a detailed understanding of how student voice is constructed, understood and experienced by students, teachers and senior leaders in three different educational settings. Using an interpretative research methodology data was collected from semi-structured interviews, observation, focus groups and provision mapping of activities across participatory and rights-based frameworks (Lundy, 2007; Mannion, Sowerby & L’Anson, 2015). This methodology incorporated three case studies of secondary schools selected because they have shown a commitment to achieving accreditation through the UNICEF UK Rights Respecting School Award (RRSA).

Findings suggest that the organisational culture and ethos of a school is vital for student voice to take root, be nurtured, and thrive. It highlights that when young people have the opportunity to have a say in decisions which affect them, they feel empowered and have a greater sense of ownership of their school experience. While conceptual models can help with supporting and facilitating participation to promote student voice practices, young people need lived opportunities to believe they have influence both individually and collectively.

The findings also highlight some of the tensions and ambiguities that exist for school leaders and raise questions about the need for schools to recognise student voice as part of broader participation rights. It is clear that for student voice to become an authentic part of a school’s everyday practices, it requires sustained effort including planning, policy changes and continuous review. Ideally, this is in partnership with students where it can help bridge the potential distances between young people and adults in the school.

Students’ emotional and behavioral difficulties are recognized as a continuing issue in the adolescent development and education. Since adolescents spend a great amount of time in schools, a central question is how schools can facilitate adolescents’ adjustment and positive schooling. Using the ERG theory of human needs, the present study aims to investigate potential predictors of students’ emotional and behavioral difficulties, by examining the individual and concurrent contribution of students’ psychological needs, mixed self-perceptions and well-being. Nine hundred and eighty-four students (aged 11–18 years old) completed (1) the Existence, Relatedness and Growth Needs Scale, (2) the Mixed Self-Perceptions Inventory, (3) the Well-being measure, and (4) the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results show that ERG needs and well-being contribute to the prediction of students’ psychological adjustment in schools. The measure of mixed self-perceptions was not a significant predictor of adolescents’ emotional and behavioral difficulties. The paper discusses the contribution of the study and its implications for teachers to improve the quality of students’ lives, as well as the significance of ERG theory in understanding human needs in relation to educational practices.

In this qualitative study, I examine the students’ interpretations of the effects of being labelled as gifted by studying their experiences subsequent to the labelling process. Students’ perceptions of these experiences are discussed. Twelve female students identified as gifted by secondary schools in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and at the time of writing, enrolled in a full-time gifted programme took part in this study. This study also examines how these students perceive the influence of labelling on their social and academic lives and self-concepts.
In-depth interviews were conducted with the participants, and the data provided new insights into the students’ perceptions regarding being labelled as gifted. This study found that the majority of the students felt that the most positive aspect of being labelled as gifted was either personal or academic. The personal aspects they mentioned included things such as higher self-confidence or opportunities for personal growth. The academic aspects consisted of things like access to better learning opportunities and the chance to participate in international and domestic activities. However, the social experience related to interactions with peers was found to be the most negative aspect. Students felt forced to choose between academic endeavours and social acceptance, which resulted in emotional and social complications. This study found that these girls were sensitive to peer pressure, valued peer acceptance highly and believed that being comfortable in school meant having peers who understood and accepted them.
The implications of these children’s experiences suggest that educators need to allow the child to take precedence over the label. It is essential to identify the individual children’s needs, wants, challenges and strengths before
formulating educational plans or creating a fixed set of expectations for their conduct and achievement.

Since 2015, the Saudi Arabian Educational system has taken practical steps to implement inclusive education on a small scale in its schools. Yet, the mere presence of students with autism in mainstream classrooms might not necessarily result in their inclusion. Literature indicates that students with autism tend to be more passive and show more levels of non- engagement compared to their peers with other types of disabilities, and teachers struggle to enhance their social and academic participation in mainstream classrooms. As a result, students with autism can perform well below their peers. To examine the challenges that teachers encounter to promote the participation of students with autism at the classroom level, the first aim of this study was to understand teaching practices associated with inclusive education for students with autism in Saudi Arabia (SA). The second aim of this study was an analytical aim based on the methodological approach of the study to illustrate and analyse the phenomenon across several cases, which provided a further contribution to understanding this phenomenon. This study adopted a longitudinal multiple case studies design with four participating teachers from two primary schools in Jeddah, SA using a combination of methods (observations, interviews with teachers and students, and surveys).
The findings of this study showed that all of the participating teachers believed that students with autism needed strategies different from those provided to their peers without disabilities to participate in their classes. Teachers varied in their practices as some excluded the students with autism in classroom activities and others included them. Interestingly, limited knowledge about autism was not directly associated with teachers’ decision of whether to promote the participation of students with autism or not. Nevertheless, limited knowledge about autism may result in less effective teaching practices. Teachers arrived at their teaching decisions in a complex way of thinking involving their attitude toward the inclusion of students with autism, their level of perceived teaching efficacy, their perceived causes of the students’ need and their expectations about the students’ learning progress in their classrooms. A model grounded in the data was developed to show how these factors interact. Teachers’ level of perceived teaching efficacy and their level of attitude were consistent with their practices. Lower levels of perceived teaching efficacy and more negative attitude were found to be critical barriers to the participation of students with autism. Further, the study found that teachers’ understanding of inclusion contributed to shaping their attitudes. Hence, their levels of attitudes were expressed by varying degrees of inclusion in practice, showing some limits to participation even for those teachers reporting a positive attitude toward inclusion. This study suggested that teachers’ perceived teaching efficacy may moderate the association between autism characteristics and teachers’ attitude. Further, teachers who perceived students with autism to have intellectual difficulties had low expectations of their learning progress, which set limits on the opportunities provided to promote their participation. This thesis also discussed the strengths and limitation of cross-case local generalisation and their implications for inclusive practices in SA and internationally.

Background
Working memory is responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating information. Links between working memory difficulties and poor educational attainment have led to a rise in the development of costly and time-intensive computer programmes that claim to train working memory ability, with inconsistent findings and limited transfer effects. To date, there has been little research into alternative systemic methods that can provide early intervention for students with working memory difficulties. This research is novel as it bridges the gap between empirical research and everyday application by using coaching psychology techniques with teachers to apply research-informed approaches about working memory in an educational setting.

Participants / Methods
Phase One of the research explored teachers’ understanding of the term working memory and whether they adapt their teaching practices for students with working memory difficulties. 10 Key Stage Two teachers from five different schools (mainstream primary and additionally resourced provisions) participated in semi-structured interviews. Phase Two involved screening 19 pupils in Key Stage Two using the Working Memory Rating Scale (WMRS) and subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children fifth edition (WISC V) and the Wechsler Non-Verbal Scale of Ability (WNV) to identify students at risk of having working memory difficulties. Phase Three explored whether a coaching psychology intervention could be used with the teachers of those students to develop understanding of working memory, and implement research-informed approaches into their classroom teaching. Seven teachers across five schools engaged in three to four individual coaching sessions with a Trainee Educational Psychologist.

Analysis / Results
Qualitative and quantitative data was collected. Qualitative data was analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The findings suggest that where there is a lack of teacher knowledge regarding the term working memory, coaching psychology techniques can be used to improve teachers’ understanding and identification using research-based strategies. Raised teacher awareness had subsequent benefits for planning, classroom practice, professional development and self-efficacy. Despite many competing pressures, coaching was valued especially for the reflection and joint problem-solving opportunities provided.

Conclusions / Implications
The findings of this research highlight that through using coaching psychology techniques to support teachers, Educational Psychologists (EPs) can be agents of change. By “giving psychology away” and linking theory to practice through coaching, those who are best placed to create change within the educational system (such as teachers), are empowered and given the skills to respond. The implications of this research for Educational Psychology (EP) practice and avenues for future research are discussed. In particular, this research highlights the many opportunities for other EPs within the profession to diversify their practice, and adopt the use of coaching psychology techniques within their everyday work to promote working memory friendly schools.

Research has shown that when young people experience difficulties in their lives, they rely on their friends for support. In the context of an increasing awareness of young people’s mental health, this study examined the phenomenon of peer support among adolescents for personal problems, including serious problems relating to mental ill health. The aims of the study were to:
• explore how adolescent peers support one another with personal
problems, including mental illness;
• explore why adolescents might prefer to disclose personal problems to
peers;
• explore adolescents’ perceptions of school-based peer support
interventions (PSIs); and
• inform the future development and implementation of a PSI which
adolescents perceive to be useable and effective.

The research comprised two phases. Taking a pragmatist approach, I used a
combination of traditionally quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Phase 1 comprised a confirmatory methodology, using a self-administered
questionnaire delivered to 390 Year 9 students at three secondary schools in a local authority in the West Midlands. Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics and basic content analysis. Part a of the questionnaire elicited data to answer research questions relating to disclosures of personal problems that the participants had received from peers. The results showed that a high proportion of participants regularly discuss problems with peers across a range of domains. The participants had experienced disclosures of problems from friends both online and face-to-face, with females reporting a higher proportion of face-to-face disclosures than males.

Part B of the questionnaire presented vignettes of a peer disclosing a difficulty relating to mental illness: depression, anxiety, or self-harm. Each vignette was followed by questions to elicit participants’ responses to the disclosure. Participants generally responded positively. Two thirds of the participants encouraged the friend to tell an adult about the problem, and half asked the friends experiencing depression or self-harm if they had considered suicide. The most commonly reported action was to tell an adult: Family members and school staff were the most frequently specified adults. Participants were moderately confident in responding to the vignettes.

Phase 2 comprised an exploratory methodology, using a qualitative research
approach: six focus groups with Year 9 students (N = 32) at three secondary
schools. In the focus groups, the participants discussed the advantages and
disadvantages of three types of PSI, facilitated by the researcher. They were also asked to discuss why they might choose to disclose a problem to a friend, rather than an adult. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.
Participants considered the following things when deciding in whom to confide a personal problem: confidentiality, motivation for listening to the problem, understanding of the problem, and feeling comfortable around the disclosee. They reported that PSIs should: be age-appropriate, confidential, and well-used; have a broad impact; involve a high quality of support; avoid unintended negative consequences; and respect the wishes of some young people not to share their problems.

Links are made between the two phases, and implications for schools and
educational psychologists are considered. The thesis concludes with future
directions for study, and the relevance of the findings for the mental health of
young people in secondary schools.

The satisfaction of adolescents’ perceived psychological needs facilitates their academic achievement and adjustment within school. A first step in this direction is the identification of adolescents’ psychological needs and the environmental factors to meet these needs. Based on the theory of Existence, Relatedness, and Growth, known as ERG, the present study aimed to develop and provide evidence for the validity of a new measure of adolescent students’ psychological needs at school. Five hundred and eighty adolescent students of public secondary schools in central Greece participated in the study. Students completed the ERG Needs Scale, the Autonomy and Competence Scales, and the Subjective Well-Being measures. Preliminary results showed that the new instrument has promising psychometric properties. The potential contribution of the new instrument for future research and educational practices are discussed.

Schools are considered a key environment to promote children and young people’s wellbeing and address mental health difficulties (Patalay et al. 2017). There have been numerous policies and guidance published on how schools can support students’ mental health (MH) and wellbeing (WB) through a whole-school approach (Lavis & Robson, 2015; Weare, 2015). Evidence has shown that schools are finding it difficult to cope with the pressures of supporting an increasing number of students requiring mental health support, whilst balancing the ‘academic’ and ‘non-academic’ role of education (Weare, 2015). Students’ challenging behaviours have been an increasing challenge for schools (Stanforth & Rose, 2018), and with a view to reducing exclusions, a number of schools are developing their own on-site units to support vulnerable students (Department for Education, 2018; Ofsted 2016).

The present study aimed to explore how senior leaders in mainstream secondary schools are supporting students’ MH and WB through a whole-school approach. Further explorations of schools with on-site units, as part of their specialised level of support, were conducted. This research consisted of two phases using a qualitative methodology. In the first phase, interviews were conducted with senior leaders in six mainstream secondary schools in a local authority in the West Midlands. The second phase consisted of two case studies of specialist on-site units. The data was analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

The findings demonstrate that senior leaders acknowledged the importance of supporting students’ MH and WB and all schools in this research had the majority of factors contributing to a whole-school approach. Yet schools are facing a number of challenges which prevent them being fully implemented. On-site units were perceived as a supportive addition to the schools’ approach. They aimed to support students’ MH and WB and prevent exclusions. Students gave mixed views about attending the unit but felt they had progressed in their learning and emotional regulation. Students’ views, as reinforced by staff, highlighted the importance of relationships across school. Considerations for the role of educational psychologists in supporting the MH and WB of young people are explored.

Within educational establishments, mathematics anxiety (MA) is considered a widespread issue (Paechter, Macher, Martskvishvili, Wimmer & Papousek, 2017). Research indicates that MA can be present and develop in young primary school children (Harari, Vukovic and Bailey, 2013; Hunt, Bhardwa & Sheffield, 2017) and is more common in girls than boys in both primary and secondary education (Hill et al. 2016). MA can negatively impact upon an individual’s mathematics performance and success, as well as their wellbeing. Furthermore, Punaro and Reeve (2012) believe that mathematics often causes greater anxiety than other academic subjects, and MA can turn into a permanent obstruction if not confronted (Rossnan, 2006). Consequently, MA negatively impacting on children’s mathematics performance and wellbeing is likely to be of interest to schools, as are ways to lessen the impact of MA and thus improve mathematics standards and children’s wellbeing (Zakaria & Nordin, 2008).

A number of mindfulness based activities have been shown to help reduce MA, however research into mindfulness with children is less explored than with adults (Weare, 2013). Therefore, this highlighted the need for good quality research into MA and mindfulness as an intervention for primary school children, which this research sought to achieve. The main intention of this research was to establish whether a mindfulness-based-intervention (MBI) could reduce MA for primary school children, and was broken down into two phases. Phase 1 involved children taking part in regular mindfulness before mathematics lessons to see if mindfulness reduced MA over 30 sessions. Phase 1 also examined the fidelity of the MBI in each school. Phase 2 explored the views of highly mathematically-anxious children.

A MA and self-efficacy (SE) scale were used to measure children’s level of MA/SE pre- and post-MBI and were completed by both a control and intervention group in each participating school. The MBI was delivered to the intervention group through mindfulness-based videos. Observations were carried out to see how the MBI was implemented in each setting. Semi-structured interviews, with children deemed as highly mathematically-anxious, were conducted to discover more about children’s individual MA and to evaluate the MBI.

Data from the scales was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings from this illustrated that the MBI was effective in reducing MA in some children, although this was more pronounced in certain schools. These findings are discussed in more detail within sections 5.3 and 5.6.

The observations of the MBI indicated differences in its implementation within each school’s ethos and children’s learning. The interview data was analysed using thematic analysis and established that highly mathematically-anxious children experienced a range of negative feelings towards mathematics, largely centred on worries, nervousness and anxiety. The children were able to discuss how these negative feelings impacted upon them and their learning as well as strategies they used (or attempted to acquire) in order to reduce these unwanted feelings. The implications for educational psychologists (EPs) were explored, as well as avenues for further research.

Coaching psychology is an emerging sub-discipline of the practice of coaching and represents a unique approach to practice in educational psychology. To date, there has been little research into the use of coaching in this field (e.g. Adams, 2016), suggesting that it is an emerging area of practice and highlighting the need for further research. As such, this research sought to explore educational psychologists’ (EPs) views of coaching and the experience of those using it in practice.

Phase 1 of the research focused on obtaining the views of coaching held by EPs whilst Phase 2 explored the experiences of a selected group of EPs who use coaching in their practice. All participants were EPs, either qualified or in training. Both quantitative and qualitative data was collected, through the use of online questionnaires in Phase 1 (N=119) and semi-structured individual interviews in Phase 2 (N=10). Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive and frequency statistics, Chi-square analysis, independent t-tests and Tukey HSD tests, whilst the qualitative data was subject to a mixture of content and thematic analyses.

The findings of this research suggest that there is ambiguity in both the understanding and practice of coaching. 81% of participants felt that coaching fits with practice and the majority agreed that its impact is or would be positive. 93% felt that coaching will have a future in educational psychology and many agreed that it should be included in doctoral training. However, a number of barriers to practice were identified, including a lack of professional confidence and the type of service in which EPs work. It was felt that this may affect the time and opportunities available for EPs to practice coaching. A conceptual map exploring the link between EPs’ views and the future of coaching is presented, with reference to Lewin’s Change Management and Force Field Analysis models (1947, 1951). Consideration is given to the implications of this research for the future practice of EPs, and suggestions for future, evidence-based research are presented.

The findings of this research offer a unique insight into the practice of coaching in educational psychology and suggest that coaching may represent a unique avenue for future practice and research.

Supervision has long been an element of practice for those working in therapeutic professions to support professional development, emotional well-being and client safety (Hawkins & Shohet, 2012). It is now a generally accepted element of the role of the EP, both in supervision undertaken within the profession (Ayres, Clarke, & Large, 2015; Dunsmuir, Lang, & Leadbetter, 2015) and in its provision to other professionals (Callicott & Leadbetter, 2013; Soni, 2015; Wedlock & Turner, 2017).

This study aims to add to the body of research exploring supervision within the EP profession, focusing specifically on recently qualified educational psychologists (RQEPs). It was undertaken in two phases and used a sequential mixed methods design. The first phase used online surveys to gather data between 2nd June and 13th July 2017 on the experiences and views of RQEP supervision from RQEP supervisees (n=42), educational psychologist (EP) supervisors (n=22) and principal educational psychologists (PEPs) (n=19), analysed using descriptive statistics and Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The second phase built upon the first phase with follow-up semi-structured interviews undertaken in June 2018 with RQEPs (n=3) and analysed using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009).

The results offer a breadth and depth of data, providing an overview of current supervision and exploring the varying concepts of supervision held within the profession. It also identifies facilitators and barriers to good supervision and explores the unique experience of being an RQEP and how this impacts on the needs of RQEPs in supervision.

Results indicate that supervision is undertaken widely but that the experience of supervision is not always positive for EPs, as is seen in other professions (Ellis, 2010). Training, experience and concepts of supervision are diverse and there is some evidence to suggest that supervision by a line manager is common - and that this dual role can be problematic.

Those sampled in Phase One all held similar views of what makes supervision ‘good’ and ‘bad’ for them and of the facilitators and barriers to good supervision. Themes identified were: Training/Skills, Content, Commitment, Practicalities and Relationships. In Phase Two, global themes were as follows: the Self (comprising the Aware Self and Feelings and Emotions); the Self in Relationship (comprising Relationship in Supervision and Power and Control); the Self in the Professional Context (comprising ‘Getting it Right’, Growing into an EP, the Elusive Concept of Supervision and Good Supervision) and the Research. Analysis and discussion of both phases combined indicate that RQEPs have unique needs as early career professionals and that establishing a safe supervisory alliance is particularly important to facilitate high quality supervision with RQEPs.

The study concludes with implications for EP practice and suggestions for future research.

Almost 20% of English pupils still experience difficulties with reading despite the use of a predominantly phonics-based approach
that works well for most children, but not for all; therefore, other
approaches need to be explored. The Integrated Group Reading
(IGR) programme involves an inclusive approach to targeted
teaching led by class teachers using group-based class organisation and the integration of diverse, research-based approaches
(language and phonics-based). IGR has been evaluated in 34
English schools across 5 varied local authority areas using a cluster
randomised design and a process evaluation. IGR was found to
support enjoyment of reading and attain as much reading gains as
the more phonics-oriented programmes used in the control
classes. Following its use there were gains in teachers’ self-efficacy
in teaching reading, and no negative effects on the class (non-IGR)
pupils’ reading skills were found. This study shows what a more
inclusive approach to targeted reading intervention can achieve
through a well-resourced programme. Questions can be asked
about the interpretation of randomised controlled trial (RCT) findings when it comes to classroom-based educational interventions,
and about teacher choice in opting for alternative teaching
approaches.

Abstract
Children with Social, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD) or Social Emotional and Mental Health (SEMH) needs often do not attain the qualifications of their peers. This can have more negative long-term outcomes in terms of employment, involvement with the criminal justice system and mental health difficulties than their typically developing peers. Some of these children with a statement of special educational need or Education Health and Care Plan will attend special schools and a higher proportion of children in special schools for BESD/SEMH receive free school meals (as an indicator of social disadvantage) than any other group of children in special schools. Studies indicate that families with lower socio-economic status are less likely to work with schools than families with higher socio-economic status. However, research seems to show that when schools work with parents this improves academic and social outcomes of children. This study aims to explore how maintained special schools for children with BESD/SEMH needs work with parents. The project was implemented using a mixed-methods approach in two phases. The first phase was an internet-based survey sent to local authority maintained special schools providing for children with in England. In response to the survey, and for the second phase, staff and parents from six schools were interviewed. The results indicate the importance of commitment from the school leadership team to working with parents, and the development of a culture and practices within schools that helps overcome the barriers to schools and parents working together. This was evidenced through working in ways that show respect for parents’ individual situations. This can include staff adapting their practices to work with parents, meeting parents’ communication needs and transport needs, while helping parents to work with other organisations.

Abstract
Children with Social, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD) or Social Emotional and Mental Health (SEMH) needs often do not attain the qualifications of their peers. This can have more negative long-term outcomes in terms of employment, involvement with the criminal justice system and mental health difficulties than their typically developing peers. Some of these children with a statement of special educational need or Education Health and Care Plan will attend special schools and a higher proportion of children in special schools for BESD/SEMH receive free school meals (as an indicator of social disadvantage) than any other group of children in special schools. Studies indicate that families with lower socio-economic status are less likely to work with schools than families with higher socio-economic status. However, research seems to show that when schools work with parents this improves academic and social outcomes of children. This study aims to explore how maintained special schools for children with BESD/SEMH needs work with parents. The project was implemented using a mixed-methods approach in two phases. The first phase was an internet-based survey sent to local authority maintained special schools providing for children with in England. In response to the survey, and for the second phase, staff and parents from six schools were interviewed. The results indicate the importance of commitment from the school leadership team to working with parents, and the development of a culture and practices within schools that helps overcome the barriers to schools and parents working together. This was evidenced through working in ways that show respect for parents’ individual situations. This can include staff adapting their practices to work with parents, meeting parents’ communication needs and transport needs, while helping parents to work with other organisations.

This paper describes the context, processes and issues experienced over 5 years in which a RCT was carried out to evaluate a programme for children aged 7–8 who were struggling with their reading. Its specific aim is to illuminate questions about the design of complex teaching approaches and their evaluation using an RCT. This covers the early development by the originator and work to develop and design a RCT funded trial. The experimental, process evaluation and case studies findings are summarized. It is argued that if RCT is the only credible evaluation approach, that there is no strong evidence for IGR use. But, if RCT as the first choice evaluation approach needs to be supplemented by process evaluation, then a positive process evaluation might save IGR for further development and evaluation trials. However, it is suggested that conceptualizing IGR as a complex teaching intervention also raises questions about RCT as the method of first choice. It is argued that a Designed-Based Research approach to scaling up IGR, an example of a Design & Research approach, might have been tried. The reasons why this was not done are explored with implications for the place of RCTs in improving teaching and learning.

Background
Teaching is a stressful occupation with poor retention. The Incredible Years® Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme is a training program that past research has demonstrated may be an effective intervention for children’s mental health, but little research has explored any impacts there may be on the teachers’ own professional confidence and mental health.
Aims
In this paper we evaluate whether TCM may lead to changes in teachers’ wellbeing, namely a reduction in burnout and an improvement in self-efficacy and mental health.
Sample
Eighty schools across the South West of England were recruited between September 2012 and September 2014. Headteachers were asked to nominate one class teacher to take part.
Methods
Eighty teachers were randomised to either attend a TCM course (intervention) or not (control). TCM was delivered to groups of up to twelve teachers in six whole-day workshops that were evenly spread between October and April. At baseline and nine months follow-up we measured teachers’ mental health using the Everyday Feelings Questionnaire (EFQ), burnout using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) and self-efficacy using the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale-Short (TSES-Short).
Results
Using linear regression models there was little evidence of differences at follow-up between the intervention and control teachers on the outcomes (the smallest p-value was 0.09).
Conclusions
Our findings did not replicate previous research that TCM improved teachers’ sense of efficacy. However, there were limitations with this study including low sample size.

Due to higher levels of Autism Spectrum Disorder diagnosis within the primary age range, more teachers than previously are teaching pupils diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder within their classrooms. The difficulties these pupils may face while at school are well documented and a range of strategies and approaches have been developed to support the needs arising from these difficulties. This thesis will explore the questions of what exact type of social, emotional and behavioural functioning do pupils with Autism Spectrum Disorder experience in their school settings?. How are any difficulties experienced managed in primary classrooms?. A total of forty two primary aged pupils were assessed through the use of two established surveys to explore the levels of social, emotional and behavioural functioning the pupils experience from three different perspectives – pupil, teacher and parent. Following on each pupil’s teacher was interviewed to explore the contemporary situation in English primary schools regarding the ways in which support is offered and ways in which this support could be developed. Six case studies were undertaken through further interviews and observations to explore in a more individualised way the ways in which pupils and teachers feel the inclusion of pupils with Autism Spectrum Disorder through the management of their social, emotional and behavioural functioning is organised. Findings show the pupils have difficulties in the areas of panic disorder, major depression and separation anxiety and that parents believe their children to have more difficulties than the children themselves or their teachers. The case studies and interviews show that although teachers report pupils with Autism Spectrum Disorder are included socially and academically in their class, the ways in which their needs are currently being met highlighted a lack of formal training and strategies and approaches designed for pupils with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Teachers’ report that further support from specialist staff would be most useful. This thesis concludes with the implications for future practice and policy (including more Autism Spectrum Disorder training for teachers and teaching assistants) and future research and study (including the impact of specialist staff in primary schools) within the area of managing social, emotional and behavioural functioning of pupils with Autism Spectrum Disorder in primary educational settings.

This paper questions the idea that there are two opposing paradigms of educational research, often called positivist versus interpretivist. It argues that the ‘paradigm’ term has been used to avoid philosophical discussions about the nature of educational research. This has been done by understanding ‘paradigms’ to reflect metaphysical positions about connected epistemological and ontological assumptions. Problems with this conception of ‘paradigms’ are discussed including how to justify combining different research methods. The paper also criticises treating pragmatism as a ‘paradigm’ by distinguishing between everyday pragmatism and philosophical pragmatism. Philosophical pragmatism is presented as a diverse approach that is naturalistic, fallibilistic and overcoming of false dichotomies, that can risk leading to a self‐defeating relativism. How these have been addressed is then discussed. This has involved introducing some transcendental or impersonal elements into pragmatism without reverting to a metaphysical realism. This involves a discussion of various philosophical perspectives, pragmatic realism, evolutionary epistemology and critical realism, as relevant to educational research. The final section draws on a version of Dewey's pragmatist model of enquiry. informed by some of Habermas's early and later epistemological ideas as the basis for thinking about educational research that encompasses flexible and combined methodological approaches. The paper places research methodology in a central focus in educational research with its links to epistemology and methods. It concludes that pragmatist assumptions contribute to understanding educational research, its methodologies and the design of plural and flexible research methods, even if there are continuing philosophical investigations.

Dyslexia is a controversial concept. In UK universities, the number of students possessing a dyslexia diagnosis continues to increase. Legislation requires that teaching staff adapt their pedagogic practices to effectively include students so diagnosed. These actions depend on lecturers having up-to-date knowledge of what the dyslexia label currently means. This study explored the nature and extent of UK lecturers’ awareness of, and attitudes towards, dyslexia and dyslexic students. One hundred and sixty-four lecturers working within a range of disciplines in 12 UK universities were surveyed via an online questionnaire. The findings revealed a high degree of positivity towards dyslexic students and academic accommodations like reasonable adjustments. The positivity, though, was typically underpinned by inadequate awareness of current dyslexia research knowledge. Notable consequences included confusion and feelings of inadequacy around how best to meet the needs of dyslexic students, a resultant reliance on generic reasonable adjustments, and disinclination to fully engage with related equity issues. The study’s quantitative estimate of the extent of these findings, together with its analysis of cross and inter-institutional differences, adds a new dimension to existing knowledge in the field. It has serious implications for the overall quality and equality of teaching and learning in higher education.

This paper describes the mixed methodology evaluation
of the Own-Voice Intensive Phonics (OVIP) programme
with 33 secondary students with persistent
literacy difficulties. The evaluation involved a quasiexperimental
evaluation in which 33 students in years
7–9 in four schools used OVIP over an 8 week period
and were monitored at three times for their word
reading, phonic decoding and phonological skills.
Students, teaching assistants and teachers involved
were also interviewed about the use of OVIP, the perceived
processes and outcomes. Assessment results
showed that OVIP was associated with greater gains
in word reading than these students usual teaching/
intervention approaches. Those interviewed also
experienced benefits associated with using OVIP. It
was further found that word reading gains were not
related to a measure of being at risk of significant literacy
difficulties. Participants identified the use of
their own voice, the students agency and working at
their own pace as key factors relevant to how OVIP
worked. These factors aligned with a working OVIP
programme theory. The findings are discussed in
terms of further development and research related to
an own voice approach to addressing persistent literacy
difficulties.

Purpose – the purpose of this paper is to examine variations within lesson study (LS) practices and their connections with related traditions: teacher research/enquiry approaches, professional development models,
professional learning communities and group problem-solving approaches. Questions are addressed about the relationships between different professional learning approaches in terms of definitions and frameworks.

Design/methodology/approach – Academic databases and website sources were searched in a purposive way to identify 20 practices associated with these traditions for comparative analysis.

Findings – a conceptual framework consisting of eight dimensions was constructed to account for the variations within and between these professional learning traditions: for instance, about the settings in which
the practices take place, the purposes of the practices and the specific procedures involved. By illustrating how specific practices fitted within this framework it is concluded that the variations within the LS tradition
are wide enough to make it difficult to identify a set of necessary and sufficient features of LS to distinguish LS practices from the other non-LS professional learning practices. Reasons are also given for considering
whether a polythetic type of definition of professional learning/development practices might be constructed.

Research limitations/implications – the possibility for a more systematic review of professional learning approaches for the construction of a conceptual framework is discussed.

Practical implications – Ways in which this kind of conceptualisation can be useful in promoting clarity about professional learning practices and in developing these practices are discussed.

Originality/value – the originality of this paper lies in the construction of a conceptual framework to analyse similarities and differences within and between various learning traditions.

Abstract
Background. We evaluated the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the Incredible Years® Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme as a universal intervention, given schools’ important influence on child mental health.
Methods. A two-arm, pragmatic, parallel group, superiority, cluster randomised controlled trial recruited three cohorts of schools (clusters) between 2012 and 2014, randomising them to TCM (intervention) or Teaching As Usual (TAU-control). TCM was delivered to teachers
in six whole-day sessions, spread over 6 months. Schools and teachers were not masked to allocation. The primary outcome was teacher-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) Total Difficulties score. Random effects linear regression and marginal logistic regression models using Generalised Estimating Equations were used to analyse the
outcomes. Trial registration: ISRCTN84130388.
Results. Eighty schools (2075 children) were enrolled; 40 (1037 children) to TCM and 40 (1038 children) to TAU. Outcome data were collected at 9, 18, and 30-months for 96, 89, and 85% of children, respectively. The intervention reduced the SDQ-Total Difficulties score at 9 months (mean (S.D.):5.5 (5.4) in TCM v. 6.2 (6.2) in TAU; adjusted mean difference
= −1.0; 95% CI−1.9 to −0.1; p = 0.03) but this did not persist at 18 or 30 months. Cost-effectiveness analysis suggested that TCM may be cost-effective compared with TAU at 30-months, but this result was associated with uncertainty so no firm conclusions can be drawn. A priori
subgroup analyses suggested TCM is more effective for children with poor mental health.
Conclusions. TCM provided a small, short-term improvement to children’s mental health particularly for children who are already struggling.

The significance of a process evaluation for understanding randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of complex teaching interventions in a classroom setting is discussed in relation to the evaluation of the Integrated Group Reading (IGR) programme trial. This process evaluation is based on realist principles and draws on different data sources. The findings indicate that the efficacy of a classroom-based complex intervention like IGR is hard to evaluate given the nature of the intervention and its context. These findings illustrate that a process evaluation should not be seen as a subsidiary study to the experimental trial, but as an independent study in its own right as it can shed light onto the setting up and running of the trial. The paper argues that RCTs by themselves do not necessarily provide the ‘best evidence’ and need to be supplemented by other evaluation perspectives.

This article addresses issues related to whether null randomised control trial (RCT) findings can by themselves be a secure indicator of programme failure. This is done by drawing on the findings of the evaluation of the Integrated Group Reading (IGR) programme using a number of teacher case studies. The case studies illustrate how the same intervention can be implemented differently in local circumstances, with different outcomes. The different ways in which IGR was implemented reflect how teachers experienced the pressures of the national curriculum, their attitudes to the IGR approach to reading, the school ethos and the resources and support available—and point to how IGR use might be enhanced to result in more significant reading gains. The article argues that in addition to the statistical findings, evaluators ought to pay attention to the context in which a programme is implemented, especially when it comes to complex interventions trialled in real classrooms. It is also concluded that it is preferable to avoid asking whether a programme works or not for all, and under any circumstances. A focus on the different ways that programmes work under different circumstances, and when implemented by different people, is a more useful perspective. This might not provide the certainty that policy‐makers would likely opt for, but it captures better the complexity associated with teaching programme evaluation.

Research findings and positions concerning the nature of the dyslexia construct are currently diverse and increasingly complex. The ability of assessor practitioners to operationalize such knowledge and categorically diagnose dyslexia in any reliable and consistent way is being questioned. This study aimed to explore the way in which diverse and complex research findings are operationalized in the dyslexia diagnostic assessment of UK higher education students. The perspectives of 118 professional assessors of dyslexia working within the sector were collected using a questionnaire and some interviews. Data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively, as appropriate, and then integrated. The results confirmed critics' concerns about the consistency and reliability of the construct as currently diagnosed within the higher education context. Key controversial aspects of practice that emerged included the contextualized interpretation of literacy difficulties, a general commitment to discrepancy concepts, scepticism about the face validity of prescribed psychometric tests, and a related reliance on professional observation and experience above test results. The findings pointed to the need for a more informed nuanced understanding of the dyslexia label and a more cautious and responsible attitude towards its use.

The increasing ethnic diversity in the UK has highlighted the importance of supporting primary school pupils with English as an Additional Language (EAL), some of whom also have special educational needs (SEN). However, there is relatively little research carried out in the UK on children with both EAL needs and SEN. This paper presents the results of a study which aimed to explore the strategies used to teach and support pupils with the dual needs in four schools in North-West England. It reports research carried out with eight EAL pupils with speech, language, and communication needs (SLCN) and four pupils with learning difficulties (LD), and explores the different strategies staff used to support these pupils. The results showed that the two groups varied in the extent to which staff differentiated pedagogical strategies. The paper concludes by pointing to the need for further training and greater collaboration between the fields of EAL and SEN in research and educational practice.

Purpose – it is argued that the issues of translating basic science, including knowledge from neuroscience, into relevant teaching are similar to those that have been experienced over a long period by educational psychology. This paper proposes that such a translation might be achieved through Lesson Study (LS), which is an increasingly used technique to stimulate teacher enquiry. To explore these issues, this paper presents the findings from a modified LS approach that involved psychologists and mathematics lecturers working together with school-based teachers to prepare a series of lessons on mathematics.

Design/methodology/approach – the LS team review and planning meetings and subsequent interviews were recorded and analysed for common themes, with reference to patterns of knowledge bridging. Particular attention was paid to translational issues and the kind of knowledge used.

Findings – Overall, there was some successful bridging between theory and practice, and evidence of translation of theoretical knowledge into relevant teaching practice. However, the analysis of the team’s interactions showed that relatively little involved a useful applied neuroscience/neuropsychology element, whereas other psychological knowledge from cognitive, developmental, educational and clinical psychology was considered more relevant to planning the LS.

Originality/value – This study illustrates how reference to brain functioning has currently little specific to contribute directly to school teaching, but it can arouse increased interest in psychological processes relevant to teaching and learning. This approach reaffirms the central role of teacher-led research in the relationship between theory and practice. The findings are also discussed in relation to the SECI model of knowledge creation.

This paper is about a design-based research project which evaluated the novel use of Lesson Study for assessment (LSfA) purposes. It starts by explaining the principles and design of LSfA procedures based on a Lesson Study model and dynamic assessment principles. It outlines the training and support provided to six Lesson Study teams in three primary and three secondary schools, each involving two class teachers and the school’s SEN coordinator. The evaluation findings focused on the LSfA processes and procedures, for example, the outcomes of LSfA for teacher confidence and knowledge, assessment capabilities and continued benefits. The LSfA process was seen to involve processes such as honest and constructive observations, analysing lessons to see what to change and using knowledge about learning difficulties. Some of the context factors that supported and inhibited the process are also outlined. Analysis of the pre-post LSfA pupil assessments showed a decrease in identifying areas of pupil difficulties and an increased identification of enabling factors. This is interpreted as evidence for the LSfA having dynamic assessment potential. The paper concludes with an account of how the LSfA procedures were adapted in response to this evaluation and suggestions for future development and research.

This paper is about a design-based research project which evaluated the novel use of Lesson Study for assessment (LSfA) purposes. It starts by explaining the principles and design of LSfA procedures based on a Lesson Study model and dynamic assessment principles. It outlines the training and support provided to six Lesson Study teams in three primary and three secondary schools, each involving two class teachers and the school’s SEN coordinator. The evaluation findings focused on the LSfA processes and procedures, for example, the outcomes of LSfA for teacher confidence and knowledge, assessment capabilities and continued benefits. The LSfA process was seen to involve processes such as honest and constructive observations, analysing lessons to see what to change and using knowledge about learning difficulties. Some of the context factors that supported and inhibited the process are also outlined. Analysis of the pre-post LSfA pupil assessments showed a decrease in identifying areas of pupil difficulties and an increased identification of enabling factors. This is interpreted as evidence for the LSfA having dynamic assessment potential. The paper concludes with an account of how the LSfA procedures were adapted in response to this evaluation and suggestions for future development and research.

This study aimed to examine the association between specific word reading difficulties (SWRD) identified at age 7 years using a discrepancy approach and subsequent dimensional measures of behavioural difficulties reported by teachers and parents at age 11 years. Behavioural problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Secondary analysis of a UK representative population-based sample of children (n = 12,631) was conducted using linear regression models. There were 284 children (2.2%) identified with SWRD at age 7 years. Children with SWRD had significantly higher scores on all measures of behavioural difficulties in unadjusted analysis. SWRD was associated with elevated behavioural difficulties at age 11 years according to parent report, and with greater emotional problems, hyperactivity and conduct issues according to teachers, even after having controlled for baseline difficulties. These results were replicated for children with low reading attainment, but no cognitive ability discrepancy. Categories of special educational need into which children with SWRD were classed at school were varied. Given high rates of co-occurring behavioural difficulties, assessment that identifies each individual child's specific functional, rather than categorical, difficulties is likely to be the most effective way of providing classroom support.

This study aimed to examine the association between specific word reading difficulties (SWRD) identified at age 7-years using a discrepancy approach and subsequent dimensional measures of behavioural difficulties reported by teachers and parents at age 11-years. Behavioural problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Secondary analysis of a UK representative population-based sample of children (n-=-12-631) was conducted using linear regression models. There were 284 children (2.2%) identified with SWRD at age 7-years. Children with SWRD had significantly higher scores on all measures of behavioural difficulties in unadjusted analysis. SWRD was associated with elevated behavioural difficulties at age 11-years according to parent report, and with greater emotional problems, hyperactivity and conduct issues according to teachers, even after having controlled for baseline difficulties. These results were replicated for children with low reading attainment, but no cognitive ability discrepancy. Categories of special educational need into which children with SWRD were classed at school were varied. Given high rates of co-occurring behavioural difficulties, assessment that identifies each individual child's specific functional, rather than categorical, difficulties is likely to be the most effective way of providing classroom support.

This paper analyses the first significant change to Special Educational Needs (SEN) legislation in England for over a decade, a change that promises new approaches to identification and assessment, increased parental choice and enhanced pupil outcomes. The paper aims to examine to what extent this new framework can live up to its claims in the field of emotional and behavioural difficulties. It analyses the policy context and some key details of this legislation by focussing on approaches such as person-centred planning, multi-professional collaborations and recent mental health initiatives in schools. It also explores what can be expected from the legislative requirements for collaboration between health, social care and education agencies to improve outcomes for children and young people. The paper concludes by addressing tensions between medical and social model assumptions by proposing a systemic approach to multi-agency working and an educationally oriented and integrated functional framework for identifying and assessing emotional and behavioural difficulties.

This article examines the pattern of placement of students with significant special educational needs at Statement and School Action Plus levels in English secondary schools, comparing sponsored and converter academies, maintained schools and the newly created free schools, studio schools and university technical colleges for 2013 and 2014. The analysis shows a clear pattern of differences: converter academies (which are governed by their own governing body) had significantly lower proportions of students with significant special educational needs overall than maintained (those remaining under local authority management) and sponsored academies (those considered to be weak/failing schools forced to become academies with outside sponsors that oversee the schools). There was a similar pattern of findings for most areas of special educational needs, except visual impairment and autistic spectrum disorder. The pattern of placement of students with Statements in the newly created free schools also showed that some free schools have unusually high proportions of students with special educational needs. These findings are discussed in terms of the increasing stratification of English secondary schools and the potential of small secondary schools to be more inclusive.

BACKGROUND: the 'Supporting Teachers and childRen in Schools' (STARS) study is a cluster randomised controlled trial evaluating the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme as a public health intervention. TCM is a 6 day training course delivered to groups of 8-12 teachers. The STARS trial will investigate whether TCM can improve children's behaviour, attainment and wellbeing, reduce teachers' stress and improve their self-efficacy. This protocol describes the methodology of the process evaluation embedded within the main trial, which aims to examine the uptake and implementation of TCM strategies within the classroom plus the wider school environment and improve the understanding of outcomes. METHODS/DESIGN: the STARS trial will work with eighty teachers of children aged 4-9 years from eighty schools. Teachers will be randomised to attend the TCM course (intervention arm) or to "teach as normal" (control arm) and attend the course a year later. The process evaluation will use quantitative and qualitative approaches to assess fidelity to model, as well as explore headteachers' and teachers' experiences of TCM and investigate school factors that influence the translation of skills learnt to practice. Four of the eight groups of teachers (n = 40) will be invited to participate in focus groups within one month of completing the TCM course, and again a year later, while 45 of the 80 headteachers will be invited to take part in telephone interviews. Standardised checklists will be completed by group leaders and each training session will be videotaped to assess fidelity to model. Teachers will also complete standardised session evaluations. DISCUSSION: This study will provide important information about whether the Teacher Classroom Management course influences child and teacher mental health and well-being in both the short and long term. The process evaluation will provide valuable insights into factors that may facilitate or impede any impact. TRIAL REGISTRATION: the trial has been registered with ISCTRN (Controlled Trials Ltd) and assigned an ISRCTN number ISRCTN84130388. Date assigned: 15 May 2012.

The 'Supporting Teachers and childRen in Schools' (STARS) study is a cluster randomised controlled trial evaluating the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme as a public health intervention. TCM is a 6 day training course delivered to groups of 8-12 teachers. The STARS trial will investigate whether TCM can improve children's behaviour, attainment and wellbeing, reduce teachers' stress and improve their self-efficacy. This protocol describes the methodology of the process evaluation embedded within the main trial, which aims to examine the uptake and implementation of TCM strategies within the classroom plus the wider school environment and improve the understanding of outcomes.

Assessing Pupils’ Progress (APP) arose from a government drive to increase the amount of teacher-based assessment within school and to make this consistent across schools. We conducted semi-structured interviews with head teachers to gain insight into how their schools applied APP and we compared the APP levels for English and Maths, provided by teachers across 11 schools for 72 pupils, to a standardised assessment (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II; WIAT). There was a strong correlation between the APP and WIAT for literacy but not for numeracy. Head teacher interviews revealed that APP is used differently across schools and at times is used in a way inconsistent with government guidance, which raises the question of how teacher assessments are used and their purpose. Questions that should be considered are; how is moderation used in schools, what is the function(s) of teacher assessments and what is good practice in relation to these assessments? Clarity about the function of assessments is of vital importance as is ensuring that assessments are meaningful to teachers, pupils, families and schools, especially in light of the weight that can be placed on teacher assessments for all these groups.

This article, by Brahm Norwich of the Graduate School of Education, University of Exeter, sets the recent legislative changes in the special education system in England, the Children and Families Act (2014), in the context of wider changes in the school system, such as changes in curriculum-assessment, the governance of schools and inspection arrangements. It also sets out the recent legislative changes in terms of the recent history of the Labour period of government, with its adoption of market principles with social inclusion as key policy commitments. A case study of a secondary school is presented to illustrate some of these points. Despite the new legislative system being described as a radical approach involving aspiration and support for special educational needs, the article argues that proposed changes promise to be marginal and defined by policy commitments to markets and small government. Moreover, there are continuing and unresolved issues from the Labour Government period that are still to be fully addressed. Research is also presented on the distribution of pupils with Statements in secondary schools and the recent rising pattern of special school placement for the first time in 30 years.

This paper presents a new theoretical model which conceptualizes inter-professional and multi-agency collaborative working, at the level of the individual within a group. This arises from a review of the literature around joint working, and is based on social psychological theories which refer to shared goals. The model assumes that collective commitment, collective efficacy, and process and outcome beliefs interact and feed into the development and maintenance of collaborative processes and outcomes. This is situated within an ecological framework that summarizes the context of inter-professional and multi-agency collaboration. The model illustrates working resolutions of specific inter-professional dilemmas around identity, role and control. This paper extends the literature around theoretical approaches to collaborative work in a multi-agency or inter-professional context, with its specific social-psychological focus on the motivations of the individual within the group. © 2013 University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education.

This paper aims to examine what the capability approach has to offer to the field of special needs and inclusive education. Several key questions are addressed: can the capability approach replace the language of needs and rights; whether the capability approach can address key issues in the field of disabilities and difficulties in education and whether it is possible to avoid the capability approach becoming a promising trend that ends in disappointment? it is concluded that there needs to be an awareness of its incompleteness and so needs integrating with other approaches. Nevertheless, it is argued that the capability approach provides a renewed ethical approach and some conceptual resources to re-examine issues in the disability and education field. © 2013 NASEN.

© 2014 British Educational Research Association. This paper examines data from the novel use of Lesson Study (LS), an internationally known strategy for professional development, to improve the teaching of students (11-14 years old) with moderate learning difficulties (MLD). The paper aims to use a systematic qualitative analytic approach to identify variations in LS practice in a development and research project with about 100 teachers across 30 schools in two LS phases. It also examines the extent to which the immediate context of undertaking the LSs relates to the LS practices and the outcomes for teachers and learners. Different data sources were used to examine the LS context, LS practices and outcomes. Analysis showed how teachers adapted the LS strategy to their particular subject areas, the needs of students identified with MLD and their teaching contexts, while mainly keeping to the expected LS procedures. Co-variation analysis showed how the degree to which contexts were supportive of LS could be related to student learning gains and teacher outcomes, but no mediating factors were identified. The conclusions indicate the importance of context for successful LS use. The findings are discussed in terms of possible mediating factors to better understand what is involved in quality and effective LS.

This paper aims to examine some tensions that underlie inclusive education as regards pupils with disabilities and difficulties. Two key tensions are analysed: difference as enabling–stigmatising (dilemmas of difference) and participation–protection, both of which can lead to significant dilemmas. Berlin’s hedgehog–fox distinction about the unity (hedgehog view) or plurality (fox view) of values is adopted and extended to different positions about inclusion. More radical versions of inclusion are portrayed as expressing rigid hedgehog positions that commit to one big value and so ignore other important values. However, in veering to a fox perspective, the argument recognises the need for tensions to be resolved. This resolving tendency expresses an integrating aim that seeks a unified perspective, even if it is not a final and absolute one. In this way some balance between a unitary view (hedgehog view) and a plurality view (fox view) can be achieved.

This paper analyses the first significant change to Special Educational Needs (SEN) legislation in England for over a decade, a change that promises new approaches to identification and assessment, increased parental choice and enhanced pupil outcomes. The paper aims to examine to what extent this new framework can live up to its claims in the field of emotional and behavioural difficulties. It analyses the policy context and some key details of this legislation by focussing on approaches such as person-centred planning, multi-professional collaborations and recent mental health initiatives in schools. It also explores what can be expected from the legislative requirements for collaboration between health, social care and education agencies to improve outcomes for children and young people. The paper concludes by addressing tensions between medical and social model assumptions by proposing a systemic approach to multi-agency working and an educationally oriented and integrated functional framework for identifying and assessing emotional and behavioural difficulties.

Purpose – the purpose of this paper is to make the case for the novel use of lesson study (LS) for assessment purposes, in addition to its typical use to develop teaching and for professional development. The specific use of LS for assessment in this paper is for pupils experiencing learning difficulties in order to enhance understanding of their needs. Design/methodology/approach – the paper explains briefly the origins and principles of LS and draws on evidence from various studies for why and how it can be used for assessment purposes. The key role of formative assessment in the LS process is connected to the parallel developments of dynamic assessment and the response to instruction approach to the assessment of pupils with learning difficulties. Findings – the paper concludes with an account of how the assessment use of LS can be translated into practical assessment procedures. Originality/value – the value of the paper is in the original and explicit explanation and justification of the use of LS principles for formative assessment of pupils with learning difficulties.

PurposeThis paper aims to discuss findings from a development and research project using the lesson study (LS) method in England, which had the overall aim of improving learning opportunities for pupils identified as having moderate learning difficulties (MLD). MLD is one of the most prevalent areas of special educational needs in the UK and the project is the first UK attempt to use LS with pupils with identified learning difficulties. The contexts, mechanisms (processes) and outcomes of the lesson studies carried out at the project schools are discussed and analysed. Design/methodology/approachThe paper outlines and discusses how teachers carried out lesson studies in 14 secondary schools and evaluates the lesson study processes in their school contexts by using both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The methodology uses a realist evaluation approach which links contexts, mechanisms and outcomes in order to develop and test a programme theory. FindingsThe teachers reported positive processes and outcomes of the lesson study experience for themselves and for the pupils with MLD, but outcomes for the schools were more ambiguous. The findings raise issues about the importance of wider support for the LS process in schools for its successful implementation as well as potential difficulties that teachers may face when engaged in the process. Originality/valueThe paper shows how LS methods can be applied to the professional learning of teachers focused on teaching pupils with learning difficulties in ordinary and some special schools. In so doing, it contributes to the developing literature about Lesson Study in the West. The analysis goes beyond the description of LS practice to examine empirically how LS outcomes arise from specific processes in particular contexts. The findings are relevant to teachers, professional developers and researchers with LS interests as well as educators interested in developing inclusive practices for pupils with special educational needs.

This article analyses current and future issues about the distinctive contribution of professional educational psychologists in a changing English service context. This is about the context of greater inter-professional and multi-agency working, but also the moves towards more quasi-market systems of service delivery. I examine the identity and service focus dilemmas that educational psychologists have to address. This raises questions about the distinction between basic and applied psychology, the nature of applying psychology and whether applying psychology requires professional educational psychologists. One of the main arguments is that how we think about applying psychology is crucial for the future in a changing context. The task is for professional psychologists to be innovative in service terms to ensure a continuing and valued position in the service network. The significance of this analysis of educational psychology in an English context for other countries is also discussed. Copyright © Australian Psychological Society Ltd 2013.

Many children who display autistic behaviours at clinical levels do not receive a formal diagnosis. This study used qualitative methods to examine parental influence in pursuing or avoiding a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The aim was to explore the function of ASD diagnosis for parents, and examine whether a diagnosis affected how parents perceived ASD. Seventeen parents participated in in-depth semi-structured interviews, which were analyzed using thematic and grounded theory approaches. Data analysis revealed dilemmas faced by parents: whether to act to retain the 'normal' status of the child or to 'normalize' the child through diagnosis and subsequent remediation. Parents who had received an ASD diagnosis for their children became proactive in trying to reduce stigmatization of ASD more widely, and in some cases actively advocating ASD diagnosis to other parents. Thus their actions may make it more likely that others will opt for diagnosis in the future.

To compare social and behavioural outcomes between children formally diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) with those of children who displayed autistic traits at preschool age, but remained undiagnosed as teenagers.

BACKGROUND: Childhood antisocial behaviour has high immediate and long-term costs for society and the individual, particularly in relation to mental health and behaviours that jeopardise health. Managing challenging behaviour is a commonly reported source of stress and burn out among teachers, ultimately resulting in a substantial number leaving the profession. Interventions to improve parenting do not transfer easily to classroom-based problems and the most vulnerable parents may not be easily able to access them. Honing teachers' skills in proactive behaviour management and the promotion of socio-emotional regulation, therefore, has the potential to improve both child and teacher mental health and well-being and the advantage that it might potentially benefit all the children subsequently taught by any teacher that accesses the training. METHODS/DESIGN: Cluster randomised controlled trial (RCT) of the Incredible Years teacher classroom management (TCM) course with combined economic and process evaluations.One teacher of children aged 4-9 years, from 80 schools in the South West Peninsula will be randomised to attend the TCM (intervention arm) or to "teach as normal" (control arm). The primary outcome measure will be the total difficulties score from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) completed by the current class teachers prior to randomisation, and at 9, 18 and 30 months follow-up, supplemented by parent SDQs. Secondary measures include academic attainment (teacher report supplemented by direct measurement in a sub-sample), children's enjoyment of school, and teacher reports of their professional self-efficacy, and levels of burn out and stress, supplemented by structured observations of teachers classroom management skills in a subsample. Cost data for the economic evaluation will be based on parental reports of services accessed. Cost-effectiveness, using the SDQ as the measure of effect, will be examined over the period of the RCT and over the longer term using decision analytic modelling. The process evaluation will use quantitative and qualitative approaches to assess fidelity to model, as well as explore Head teacher and teachers' experiences of TCM and investigate school factors that influence the translation of skills learnt to practice. DISCUSSION: This study will provide important information about whether the Teacher Classroom Management course influences child and teacher mental health and well-being in both the short and long term. It will also provide valuable insights into factors that may facilitate or impede any impact.The trial has been registered with ISCTRN (Controlled Trials Ltd) and assigned an ISRCTN number ISRCTN84130388. (http://www.controlled-trials.com/isrctn/search.html?srch=ISRCTN84130388&sort=3&dir=desc&max=10).

This article describes an investigation into the outcomes of a school-based initiative to improve the word reading skills of a group of secondary school students (n =77). The project involved the delivery of an enhanced precision teaching (PT) programme across two cohorts of students by teaching assistants (TAs) in each school who themselves received ongoing training and support throughout the project. Using a quasi-experimental design the research points to the contribution of this approach to PT in promoting basic reading skills. This was achieved through elaborating on the formative aspects of PT and increased structure to intervention delivery and the continuous development of staff skills. As a venture networking schools, a local authority educational psychology service and a university department, it is suggested this research reflects a description of how contemporary educational psychology services might operate. © 2010 Association of Educational Psychologists.

There is now a renewed emphasis in the UK on short intensive interventions to tackle reading failure. In this paper we report on the effect of a programme based on a view that reading problems are associated with the inability of the learner to deal with speech at the level of individual speech sounds even though they may be fully competent in the production and perception of oral language. We investigated the effect of a self-voice feedback intervention programme on the word recognition abilities of pupils who were experiencing reading delay. Our sample was made up of 159 pupils aged 6-13 years, whose reading age was at least one year behind their chronological age, drawn from seven schools in England. We used a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design with experimental and control groups using between-subjects (randomly assigned) and within-subjects (those waiting-in-line as controls before entering an intervention group) analysis. We found that those in the intervention condition made significantly greater gains in their word recognition abilities than their counterparts in control conditions or than they themselves had made prior to entering the intervention condition. We concluded that whilst the success of the programme suggests that pupils who display reading delay problems can have their word recognition abilities improved by an intense self-voice feedback intervention, at least in the short term, further work is necessary to investigate how the intervention works procedurally and the longevity of its effect. © 2007 Taylor & Francis.

Shortlisted for the nasen Special Educational Needs Academic Book award 2008 Inclusion has become very influential internationally in the field of schooling. This has involved the introduction of policies that pursue more provision for, and acceptance of, students with special educational needs or disabilities in ordinary school settings. However, these policies represent different and often conflicting values and approaches to education. The basic dilemma of difference is whether to recognise or not to recognise differences, as either way there are negative implications or risks associated with stigma, devaluation, rejection or denial of relevant opportunities. This is the first book to examine ideas about these dilemmas from a range of disciplines and fields about the nature and origins of such dilemmas as they apply to special and inclusive education. In particular these dilemmas are about: • identification - whether to identify students as having special educational needs / disabilities or not? • curriculum - how much of a common curriculum is relevant to these students? • placement - can appropriate learning can take place in ordinary schools and classes or not? This ground-breaking book examines professional educators and administrators at national and local authority level across three countries - England, USA and the Netherlands - and questions how they recognise tensions or dilemmas in responding to student differences. of interest to researchers, students, academics and professionals, this study will provide a much needed, balanced and powerful contribution to the inclusion debate.

This article is the second in a 2-part synthesis of an international comparative seminar on the classification of children with disabilities. In this article, the authors discuss classification frameworks used in identifying children for the purpose of providing special education and related services. The authors summarize 7 papers that addressed aspects of disability classification in educational systems in the United States and the United Kingdom. They discuss current policies for determining which children receive special education services, the origins and evolution of these policies, and current dilemmas and challenges associated with classification schemes and the provision of special education. The authors also describe emerging data and possible models and practices that might be used in educational systems. They conclude with the recognition that both formal and informal educational classification systems will continue to be required within a system that must address the competing priorities of individual needs and the broader social and community goals of education. However, as was argued in the previous article, by understanding the mix of intentions that underpin these policies, as well as periodically reviewing the norms that underlie them, it may be possible to move classification to descriptors that can be used to efficiently and effectively define educational needs and distribute resources.

In this paper we report and analyse findings from part of a two-year evaluation project which focuses on parent-professional communications over the issues of learning difficulties arising from dyslexia. The key concepts in this study are dyslexia friendly schools and parental partnership, which are discussed in the current policy interest in inclusive education and parent partnership. A conceptual framework has been derived from the study which focuses on parental strategies to ensure adequate provision for their children, knowledge about dyslexia and identity, in particular that of the mother of the child with dyslexia. Excerpts from in-depth interviews of parents are then presented to illustrate the framework. The significance of the findings is examined in relation to other studies of parent partnership. Implications for a more inclusive version of extended professionalism are also considered.

BACKGROUND: the study is set in the context of international moves towards more inclusion of children with disabilities into mainstream schools and the greater importance attached to the child's voice in decision making in education. AIMS: to examine how children with moderate learning difficulties (MLD) in mainstream and special schools see themselves; to investigate their positive, negative and mixed self-perceptions; to explore their evaluations of the terms and labels used by others to describe them; and to examine whether their perceptions vary according to special educational placement, age or gender. SAMPLE: One hundred and one children; 50 in special and 51 in mainstream schools, of whom 51 were age 10-12 and 50 13-14 years; within each age group half were boys and half were girls. METHOD: Semi-structured in-depth interviews based on a common framework derived from the research questions. RESULTS: Most pupils were aware of their learning difficulties and felt mainly negative about their difficulties. Pupils in special schools had more positive self-perceptions of educational abilities than those in mainstream schools. Self-perceptions of general characteristics were mainly a mixture of positive and negative with no differences by placement. 'Stupid' and 'thick' were perceived as the most negative labels, while 'has help' was the most positive label. The SEN term was infrequently recognized. CONCLUSIONS: the findings are discussed within the context of a multi-dimensional, complex and contrary framework of self-perceptions, and reference groups as the bases for self-perceptions and as an active and interpretive process in the formation of self-perceptions.

Recent curriculum initiatives, such as the National Literacy and Numeracy Hours, assume the validity of a broadly common curriculum for all pupils. This article synthesises a review which set out to subject that assumption to critical scrutiny, addressing the ensuing question: can differences between learners (by particular special educational needs [SEN] group) be identified and systematically linked with learners' needs for differential teaching? Generic teaching effectiveness studies have assumed that what works with most pupils would also work for all pupils. However, little direct evidence for this position has been presented in the areas of learning difficulties which are covered in this review. Similarly, some papers by SEN specialists make calls, which were also mostly unsubstantiated by empirical evidence, for what the authors call, the 'unique differences' position. This rejects distinctive SEN teaching strategies and accepts that there are common pedagogic principles which are relevant to the unique differences between all pupils, including those considered to be designated as having SEN. This position is qualified by some recognition of the need for more intense and focused teaching for those with SEN. Support for a common pedagogy also comes from the authors' analyses of pedagogy by SEN group. They conclude that the notion of continua of teaching approaches is useful as it makes it possible to distinguish between the 'normal' adaptations in class teaching for most pupils and the greater degree of adaptations required for those with more severe difficulties in learning, those designated as having SEN. These are adaptations to common teaching approaches, what have been called specialised adaptations, or 'high density' teaching.

This paper raises questions about the relationship between educational psychology and special educational needs. In addressing these questions it is argued that we need to take a broader view of educational psychology as a field of psychology which includes, but goes beyond, the field of professional educational psychology. Similarly, we need to consider special educational needs not as a separate sector but as an aspect of education which includes those with difficulties and disabilities. The paper argues that there is a common cause between all psychologists involved in education, including professional educational psychologists, wherever they are based. There is also the need for educational psychologists in this wider sense to have distinctive contributions compared to other allied professionals. The paper also presents an analysis of the relationship between social and psychological models of special education and disability and uses this to demonstrate the inter-connections between education and psychology. While it is argued that the specific organisation of support services in education needs to be changed, this does not affect the continuing relationship between professional educational psychology and special education which derives from these basic links.

Teacher Support Teams (TSTs) are a way of supporting individual teachers who request support over a teaching concern relating broadly to special educational needs. This paper reports on the development of these teams and the evaluation of their workings and impact in four secondary schools. The training and setting up process were monitored over four terms and the impact assessed at the end of this period using a case study evaluation strategy. This paper provides details from two schools, one that managed to build the TST into the school system, and another that had difficulties in doing so. It then summarizes several key general lessons that emerge from the four schools. The paper concludes with a discussion ofthe policy context ofthis teacher support initiative and its relationship to staff development and support as a school priority. The project is also evaluated in the context of findings from a national survey of SEN teacher support. Recommendations are then made for governors and senior managers about implementing support systems in the current school system. © 2000, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

BACKGROUND: the vast majority of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties are educated in their usual classes in ordinary schools across the countries. The study, therefore, of teachers' responses to these children is important for both teachers' and students' well-being in schools. Research provides evidence that teachers attribute students' difficulties to factors external to themselves, that is family or child factors and although they experience feelings of irritation and indifference with disruptive students they feel responsible and committed to help them. As far as their coping strategies are concerned, teachers seem to mostly favour positive interventions. AIMS: This study aimed to examine Greek teachers' causal attributions, emotional and cognitive responses, coping strategies and suggestions for effective coping strategies with students with emotional and behavioural difficulties. SAMPLE: This comprised 391 elementary teachers teaching in 60 public schools in the area of Athens. METHOD: Teachers completed an inventory presenting six short scenarios of students with emotional and behavioural difficulties, varying in the type of difficulty (conduct or emotional) and the degree of severity for teachers to handle them (mild or severe). RESULTS: Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that teachers perceived school and teacher factors as causal of emotional and behavioural difficulties. Teachers expressed feelings of sympathy for these children, and perceived themselves as responsible, self-efficacious and inclined to help them. Finally, they reported using supportive techniques to handle emotional and behavioural difficulties, which they also considered as effective. CONCLUSIONS: Teacher training becomes crucial as a process of adopting patterns of thought and strategies for responding to students with emotional and behavioural difficulties.

This study aimed to identify the types of emotional and behavioural difficulties that Greek primary teachers saw as problematic in their teaching; and also to identify their perceptions of the prevalence of these difficulties. A Behaviour Inventory was administered to 170 elementary teachers from 23 randomly selected schools in Athens. Analysis showed that teachers found 'work avoidance', 'depressive mood', 'negativism', 'physical aggression' and 'lack of concentration' as most problematic. By contrast, they found 'excessive shyness' and 'attention seeking' as least problematic. However, only one of the most problematic behaviours, 'lack of concentration', was among the highly frequent behaviours. The other highly frequent behaviours were 'talking without permission', 'untidiness' and 'fidgeting'. The least frequent behaviours were 'over-dependence on teacher' and 'school phobia'. The findings are discussed in terms of historical and international patterns and trends in teachers' perceptions of emotional and behavioural difficulties. The significance of the study for the professional development of teachers and for policy-makers is also examined.

BACKGROUND: There is renewed interest in motivation and school learning, though there has been relatively little theory-linked research in English schools. AIMS: in the first stage, to explore pupils' reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English, maths and other subjects. In the second stage, to examine differences in reasons across subjects, for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving for boys and girls in two year groups in one secondary school. SAMPLE: Stage 1, 16 pupils in years 7, 8 and 9 in two London secondary schools; Stage 2, 267 pupils in years 7 and 9 in one of these schools. METHODS: Stage 1--semi-structured interviews were conducted to elicit different kinds of reasons conceptualised in terms of the Deci. &. Ryan's (1985) framework of self-determination. From these elicited reasons, an inventory 'Why I Learn' was designed. Stage 2--the inventory was administered to identify reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English and maths. RESULTS: Parent introjected reasons were the highest for learning and behaving while teacher introjected and intrinsic reasons were the lowest. Intrinsic reasons were highest for not learning and behaving. Year group differences in reason levels were more significant than gender or subject differences. Reasons for learning and behaving were more differentiated from each other than reasons for not learning and behaving. DISCUSSION: the results are discussed in terms of their significance for self-determination theory, research into the conditions promoting greater self-determination in school learning and further development of the inventory for programme evaluation.

BACKGROUND: There is renewed interest in motivation and school learning, though there has been relatively little theory-linked research in English schools. AIMS: in the first stage, to explore pupils' reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English, maths and other subjects. In the second stage, to examine differences in reasons across subjects, for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving for boys and girls in two year groups in one secondary school. SAMPLE: Stage 1, 16 pupils in years 7, 8 and 9 in two London secondary schools; Stage 2, 267 pupils in years 7 and 9 in one of these schools. METHODS: Stage 1--semi-structured interviews were conducted to elicit different kinds of reasons conceptualised in terms of the Deci & Ryan's (1985) framework of self-determination. From these elicited reasons, an inventory 'Why I Learn' was designed. Stage 2--the inventory was administered to identify reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English and maths. RESULTS: Parent introjected reasons were the highest for learning and behaving while teacher introjected and intrinsic reasons were the lowest. Intrinsic reasons were highest for not learning and behaving. Year group differences in reason levels were more significant than gender or subject differences. Reasons for learning and behaving were more differentiated from each other than reasons for not learning and behaving. DISCUSSION: the results are discussed in terms of their significance for self-determination theory, research into the conditions promoting greater self-determination in school learning and further development of the inventory for programme evaluation.

Brahm Norwich, Professor of Educational Psychology and Special Educational Needs at Exeter University (formerly Professor of Special Education, at the Institute of Education, University of London) discusses ways in which labelling can affect attitudes to, and provision for, pupils with special educational needs. He gives details of an in-depth study on the attitudes of experienced teachers, trainee teachers and trainee educational psychologists. NASEN 1999.

Summary: This article describes a small-scale project to develop an inventory to identify children's self-assessments of what they do in class to learn (learning behaviours) and what factors make learning hard (preventive factors). The project also aimed to develop a way of using these self-assessments to explore with children in Key Stage 2 whether they wanted to make changes to their learning approaches, so leading to some action planning. The project is informed by theoretical approaches focused on self-regulated learning and learning conversations. Its relevance is set in the context of the Code of Practice (DfE, 1994) with its expectation that children contribute their own perspectives to assessing their learning needs. The article describes the stages of development and the results of the study of the consistency of self-assessments and of an analysis of the outcomes of its action planning use. © 1998, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

This article presents an analysis of how special education contributes to our contemporary understanding of educational values, schooling and the curriculum. We argue that special education is not simply and only a separate part of education, it is inherently connected to all aspects of education. This connective position is contrasted with the recurrent view that the full range of educational needs can be separated out neatly into the majority with ‘normal’ needs and the minority with ‘special needs’. There are indications that the New Labour government is engaging in this oversimplified distinction in its educational policy. The article focuses on two key changes in the education service over the past decade from a special educational needs perspective: the introduction of the National curriculum and the policy move towards greater school specialisation. It argues for a multi-dimensional concept of educational needs as the basis for connecting special and mainstream education. The contribution of special education to our wider understanding of education is presented in terms of three key areas: the nature of values in education, the impact of market choice and the stress on achievement as a leading value. © 1998, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

The authors explore the possibility of teacher collaboration in primary and secondary schools around issues of special educational needs (SEN). They report on a national survey which asked SEN coordinators which types of collaborative teacher groups were being run in their schools, the duration and frequency of such groups, their perceived usefulness and the arrangements for running them. The results are discussed in the context of the importance and role of teacher support as part of a whole strategy of SEN provision. © 1998 NASEN.

This paper considers the perspectives of 13-15-year-old pupils in a special school for moderate learning difficulties in inner city London. Views about special schooling and integration, whether they experience a tension in their perspectives about special schooling in relation to stigma, and their perceptions of self-continuity and change and their possible selves, were explored through semi-structured interviews with 19 pupils. The findings were interesting in showing a tendency for these pupils to express views reflecting a tension between the positive benefits of their special schooling and teaching and the negative consequences of so doing at a stigmatized school. These pupils also tended to see the positive contribution of such schools as an expression of their overall lack of confidence in the potential of mainstream schools to adapt and support their learning needs. The findings are discussed in terms of involving pupils in decisions about their educational provision, understanding self-perceptions in terms of reference groups and theoretical matters concerned with internalizing others' views in constructing the self.

This paper explores the ways in which the study of special educational needs has developed and changed in the last decade and a half of policy-making in education. It focuses upon key theoretical changes and the shift of emphasis in substantive concerns. In relation to theoretical issues, the changes have involved an increased focus upon social and political values guiding educational provision rather than on the specific explanatory disciplines of psychology and sociology. These changes can be attributed to the growth in consumer rights and parent power since the 1980s. It is argued that dichotomous thinking oversimplifies matters, whether between psychological and sociological perspectives or between the policy-making values of inclusion and market-driven choice. The implication of this position in terms of recent developments and their implications for future policy-making are explored.

This paper reports on part of an evaluation of teacher support teams (TSTs) as a special education needs (SEN) support strategy in primary schools. Using a mixture of quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods, it focuses on areas derived from a theoretical framework for understanding schools' approaches to SENs. TSTs were set up and run in six of the eight schools, with meetings of between 30 and 45 minutes, usually during lunchtime or after school. Most of the referrals were about behaviour problems, though many were about learning difficulties. The support included providing emotional encouragement, specific approaches to managing behaviour, teaching strategies and consulting others. Referring teachers reported that their TST experience led to increased confidence and some improvements in the children, while TST members themselves believed that they had gained much from the TST experience. Overall the study showed the feasibility and benefits of setting up TSTs in primary schools. The findings are discussed in terms of the wider benefits of TSTs and their relevance to special needs policies and the implementation of the SENs code of practice.

Brahm Norwich, Professor of Special Needs Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, is the first of the new professors to articulate his views on the future of Special Education as we approach the Millenium. He considers innovative approaches to the concept of human differences. © 1996 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

This article discusses some of the basic issues about the role ofpsychological assessment in the system of statutory assessment required for issuing statements. These are continuing issues which come to the fore when the procedures for identifying special educational needs and the context in which it takes place undergo change. These are the current circumstances with the introduction of the national curriculum, the introduction of local management of schools and the Education Act 1993 with its code of practice. The article raises some of the challenges which these changes present to educational psychologists. It concludes with a case for seeing these issues and challenges in the wider context of the relationship between educational and other areas of applied psychology, the relationship between professional educational psychology and theoretically based psychology, and the inter-relationships between psychology and allied disciplines. It is argued that by renewing links with the conceptual aspects of psychology in its wider context, educational psychologists can have confidence in using psychology, even with changes in the psychological service base and role definitions. © 1995, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

This article reports the findings and discusses the implications of a research project on school clusters, a system of inter‐school collaboration to meet special educational needs (SEN) in ordinary schools. The project was in two stages. The first stage involved detailed qualitative case studies of four different kinds of cluster arrangement. These were analysed in terms of antecedents, processes and outcomes based on documentation and interviews with key participants as informants. The second stage surveyed a wider sample of cluster arrangements in three regional meetings using a group interview methodology. The overall findings are summarised in terms of the conditions and factors which promote SEN inter‐school collaboration and the outcomes for schools, teachers, local education authorities (LEAs) and support services. The significance and implications of these forms of inter‐school collaboration are finally discussed in terms of the current changes to the school system and the education of pupils with SEN. 1994 British Educational Research Association

Differentiation has become a topical matter in the wake of the implementation of the National Curriculum. This paper explores different conceptions and evaluations about differentiation. One of its main aims is to show that the issue of differentiation arises out of the tension between the basic values of equality and belongingness on one hand and individuality on the other. This is reflected in the processes of teaching and learning, in the design of the curriculum and the organisation of schooling, and in the Intended outcomes of learning. Another aim is to show the links between these value considerations and particular assumptions about the nature and sources of individual differences. The case for a genuine interactionist model is presented which recognises the interplay between internal child and external environmental factors. This model is associated with the position that there is a plurality of values which need to be balanced and reconciled. © 1994 Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

Previous studies in secondary schools in disadvantaged areas have shown that learning intentions and behaviour in lessons could be predicted from factors related to the classroom context, such as prior learning behaviour and self efficacy judgements. However, attitudes and perceived pressures do not predict intentions and behaviour. In addition to investigating these relationships in an independent girls' school, this study also explored the significance of goal orientation and perceived learning environment for learning intentions and behaviour. Seventy pupils aged 12–14 years from two age groups, each with two ability groups, took part in a repeated measures study during maths lessons over 7 weeks. The results confirmed that attitudes and subjective norm did not predict intention and learning behaviour. Past learning behaviour related predictively to lesson behaviour and self efficacy judgements about being able to engage in learning behaviours. Self efficacy, which was itself predicted by perceptions of class cohesion and reports of goal orientation, was the best predictor of learning intentions, which was in turn the only predictor of learning behaviour. The results are discussed in terms of the possible significance of learning attitudes when there is subject choice. They also point to the need for further study of the relationships between perceived learning environment, self efficacy and learning intentions. © 1994, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

This study of educators' attitudes to the integration of those with special educational needs in ordinary schools and classes took place in rural and urban areas of Pennsylvania, USA and Northamptonshire, England. The aim was to investigate and compare the relationships of integration attitudes to political outlook, socio-political views, identification with those with disabilities, contact with disability and professional position. Integration attitudes were mildly positive in both countries and were weakly related to political outlook and socio-political views. Direct contact with disability was also associated with more positive integration attitudes for those with more right-wing outlooks. In the English sample, integration attitudes were more positive and more related to socio-political views, by comparison with the US sample in which only professional position related independently to integration attitudes. These findings are discussed in terms of an interactionist perspective, and related to differences of special education provision in the two study areas and possible cultural differences. © 1994, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

This study had two broad aims; firstly, to investigate the predictive relationships between i) overall subject affective factors (attitude and subjective norm), ii) specific lesson factors (behaviour intention, perceived preventive factors and self efficacy) and iii) learning behaviour during lessons; and secondly, to investigate the consistency of these affective factors across English and maths, and whether there were differences between average and low attaining pupils in these affective factors. Twenty-eight boys and girls, aged 11-14 years, in an inner city comprehensive school were assessed for these factors in two subjects over two occasions. It was found that neither attitude nor subjective norm were consistently predictive of intentions. The lesson specific factors (behaviour intention, preventive factors and self efficacy), which were inter-related, were moderately predicted by past learning behaviour, and were each predictive of subsequent learning behaviour. Pupils were also consistent in their affective perspectives to learning maths and English, though few differences were found between average and low attaining pupils. The significance of the findings is discussed in terms of the theoretical links between self efficacy and reasoned action approaches, the context of assessment and the nature of behaviour intention.

This study had two broad aims; firstly, to investigate the predictive relationships between i) overall subject affective factors (attitude and subjective norm), ii) specific lesson factors (behaviour intention, perceived preventive factors and self efficacy) and iii) learning behaviour during lessons; and secondly, to investigate the consistency of these affective factors across English and maths, and whether there were differences between average and low attaining pupils in these affective factors. Twenty-eight boys and girls, aged 11-14 years, in an inner city comprehensive school were assessed for these factors in two subjects over two occasions. It was found that neither attitude nor subjective norm were consistently predictive of intentions. The lesson specific factors (behaviour intention, preventive factors and self efficacy), which were inter-related, were moderately predicted by past learning behaviour, and were each predictive of subsequent learning behaviour. Pupils were also consistent in their affective perspectives to learning maths and English, though few differences were found between average and low attaining pupils. The significance of the findings is discussed in terms of the theoretical links between self efficacy and reasoned action approaches, the context of assessment and the nature of behaviour intention.

This article deals with an evaluation of some teacher support teams (TSTs) and the way they can be utilised in response to current pressures and demands. TSTs take as their focus the teacher and not the child. Through self‐supportive networks teachers can gain greater understanding of classroom problems and increase their competence in dealing with them. Harry Daniels and his colleagues have developed this technique in a number of London schools and report on its effectiveness. Copyright © 1993, Wiley Blackwell. All rights reserved

This study investigated the reliability and validity of assessing the self-perceptions of young people with severe learning difficulties. Twelve young people from a social education centre were interviewed in three different ways, based on personal construct psychology methods. This involved using both rating and ranking methods with provided and elicited constructs. Self-perception levels were found to be fairly stable over time and despite changes in the assessment methods. Peer perceptions of each young person corresponded fairly well with self-perceptions, though parent or guardian estimates of self-perceptions were far less accurate. The findings are interpreted as showing the feasibility of dependable assessment of the self-perceptions of young people with severe learning difficulties. © 1992, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

This paper describes a study which examined recent research on classroom management and translated the research findings into a skills‐based programme on the theme of Effective Classroom Management. The programme was evaluated both formatively and summatively when piloted in both a rural and an urban setting during an in‐service course organised for primary teachers. The evaluation results show that research‐based concepts and principles lent themselves to translation in a way that was both meaningful and of practical value to teachers. Programme goals of developing a richer conceptualisation of what classroom management entailed and of extending management skills were largely achieved. The study indicates the importance of a conceptual and skills‐based approach to classroom management. It also suggests that the theme carries with it the potential to contribute to teachers' sense of professionalism. 1991 British Educational Research Association

Thirty-nine adolescents with physical impairments, from special school, partially integrated and fully integrated placements were matched for age, broad educational attainments and degree of physical impairment. Quantitative and qualitative indicators of self-concepts and self-esteem were assessed. The physical self-concept was significantly lower than the other aspects of self-concept for all three groups. There was a trend for physical self-concept to be lower with more integration. Physical selfconcept was also found to be more independent of other self-concept aspects in the fully integrated group and this finding was used to account for the other finding that the highest levels of self-esteem were in the fully integrated group. This pattern of results is interpreted in terms of current theories about the social comparison basis of self-perception and the relationship between self-concept and self-esteem. © 1990, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

‘Modifying’ or ‘disapplying’ the National Curriculum – what do these terms mean? Neither is clearly defined in the Education Reform Act, statutory instruments or circulars. Yet both begin to apply from this month onwards as the National Curriculum is introduced into schools. Guidance from the Department of Education and Science is urgently needed, suggests Brahm Norwich, lecturer in the Department of Educational Psychology and Special Educational Needs, Institute of Education, London University. Copyright © 1989, Wiley Blackwell. All rights reserved

This study investigated how attitudes and intentions about learning mathematics might be related to subsequent mathematics learning and achievement using the Ajzen and Fishbein theory of reasoned action. The sample consisted of 142 boys and girls between 12 and 14 years old in a large inner city comprehensive school who were assessed in a follow-up design over a nine-month period. Beliefs about the outcomes of learning, attitudes to learning, perceptions of significant others' prescriptions about learning, intentions to engage in learning behaviours, self and teacher reported learning behaviour and mathematics achievement were assessed at both stages. Regression analysis suggested that while the expectancy-value components of attitude did relate to learning behaviour intentions, perceived prescriptions did not relate to intentions. There was a weak relationship between the two measures of learning behaviour, but with neither measure did intention independently predict future behaviour once prior behaviour was taken into account. The best predictor of subsequent mathematics achievement was prior achievement, though teacher-reported learning behaviour did have an independent relationship with subsequent achievement. The findings are discussed in terms of the assessment of learning behaviours, the relevance of the behaviour intention construct for repeated multiple behaviours and future work on how affective variables might be related to cognitive achievements.

This study investigated how attitudes and intentions about learning mathematics might be related to subsequent mathematics learning and achievement using the Ajzen and Fishbein theory of reasoned action. The sample consisted of 142 boys and girls between 12 and 14 years old in a large inner city comprehensive school who were assessed in a follow-up design over a nine-month period. Beliefs about the outcomes of learning, attitudes to learning, perceptions of significant others' prescriptions about learning, intentions to engage in learning behaviours, self and teacher reported learning behaviour and mathematics achievement were assessed at both stages. Regression analysis suggested that while the expectancy-value components of attitude did relate to learning behaviour intentions, perceived prescriptions did not relate to intentions. There was a weak relationship between the two measures of learning behaviour, but with neither measure did intention independently predict future behaviour once prior behaviour was taken into account. The best predictor of subsequent mathematics achievement was prior achievement, though teacher-reported learning behaviour did have an independent relationship with subsequent achievement. The findings are discussed in terms of the assessment of learning behaviours, the relevance of the behaviour intention construct for repeated multiple behaviours and future work on how affective variables might be related to cognitive achievements.

In this study, I investigated the relation between self-efficacy and mathematics achievement when other factors, such as self-concept of math ability, prior task achievement, and prior self-efficacy were taken into account. I assessed self-efficacy over 4 trials in a repeated-measures design with 72 children, aged 9-10 years. I assessed task performance after the first and third self-efficacy assessment. Regression analysis indicated small or no predictive relation between self-efficacy and task performance, depending on task familiarity, when these other factors were included in the analysis. Results of the study lend one to doubt that there is a simple relation between self-efficacy and task performance in the field of mathematics learning. The complexity of self-efficacy, its sources, and consequences are also illustrated. © 1987 American Psychological Association.

This exploratory study aimed to compare the effectiveness of a computer programme and\direct teaching in promoting simple number estimation skills for a group of eight children\(ages from 9 to 12 years) in a special school for children with moderate learning difficulties.\A modified single case study design using random group allocation was used with performance\gains being monitored with teaching related and generalization tasks. Average gains\made by both groups on both kinds of tasks were maintained over a 4 week period. The\results are discussed in terms of the differential gains for the two groups for the teachingrelated\and generalization tasks and individual variations in response to the teaching\approaches. Despite methodological difficulties the study indicates that both teaching\approaches are associated with direct and transfer gains in simple number estimation which\are durable over a 4 week period. © 1986, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

This research note describes the rationale and methods used in a pilot single case-study of teaching subtraction to an adolescent with specific learning difficulties. The rationale is derived from Bloom's theory of school learning with its emphasis on mastery of objectives and on the contributory influence of self-concept of ability on learning outcomes. This is linked to Bandura's theory of self-efficacy which is associated with a methodology for assessing self-efficacy in relation to objectives. The results indicated that self-efficacy judgements could predict subsequent subtraction performance and that there could have been some transfer in self-efficacy from one task to another related task. The results are discussed in terms of assessment methodology and of future areas for theoretical and practical developments. © 1985, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

A new one‐term course which has its focus on the school, local education authorities and practical projects chosen by course members is described by Dr Brahm Norwich, lecturer in special needs, London University Institute of Education, and Elizabeth Cowne, tutor to the course for teachers of children with special educational needs in the ordinary school. Copyright © 1985, Wiley Blackwell. All rights reserved